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深圳自考00015英語（二）語法.押題資料
自考在線學(xué)習(xí)
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《英語(二)》
考試-知識點(diǎn)押題資料
(★機(jī)密)
英語語法
1.名詞
1.1 名詞復(fù)數(shù)的規(guī)則變化
1.2 其他名詞復(fù)數(shù)的規(guī)則變化
1.3 名詞復(fù)數(shù)的不規(guī)則變化
1.4 不可數(shù)名詞量的表示
1.5 定語名詞的復(fù)數(shù)
1.6 不同國家的人的單復(fù)數(shù)
1.7 名詞的格
2.冠詞和數(shù)詞
2.1 不定冠詞的用法
2.2 定冠詞的用法
2.3 零冠詞的用法
2.4 冠詞與形容詞+名詞結(jié)構(gòu)
2.5 冠詞位置
2.6 數(shù)詞
3.代詞
3.1 人稱代詞的用法
3.2 人稱代詞之主、賓格的替換
3.3 代詞的指代問題
3.4 并列人稱代詞的排列順序
3.5 物主代詞
3.6 雙重所有格
3.7 反身代詞
3.8 相互代詞
3.9 指示代詞
3.10 疑問代詞
3.11 關(guān)系代詞
3.12every
, no, all,
both, neither, nor
3.13none,
few, some,
any, one, ones
3.14 代詞比較辯異 one，that 和 it
3.15one/another/the other
3.16“the”的妙用
3.17anyone/any one;no one/none;every/each
3.18both,
either, neither, all, any, none
3.19many,
much
3.20few, little, a few, a little
4.形容詞和副詞
4.1 形容詞及其用法
4.2 以-ly 結(jié)尾的形容詞
4.3 用形容詞表示類別和整體
4.4 多個(gè)形容詞修飾名詞的順序
4.5 副詞及其基本用法
4.6 兼有兩種形式的副詞4.7 形容詞與副詞的比較級
4.8as + 形容詞或副詞原級
+ as
4.9 比較級形容詞或副詞 +
than
4.10 可修飾比較級的詞
4.11many,old 和 far
4.12the + 最高級 + 比較范圍
4.13 和 more 有關(guān)的詞組
5.動詞
5.1 系動詞
5.2 什么是助動詞
5.3 助動詞 be 的用法
5.4 助動詞 have 的用法
5.5 助動詞 do 的用法
5.6 助動詞 shall 和 will 的用法
5.7 助動詞 should 和 would 的用法
5.8 短語動詞
5.9 非謂語動詞
6.動名詞
6.1 動名詞作主語、賓語和表語
6.2Worth 的用法
7 動詞不定式
7.1 不定式作賓語
7.2 不定式作補(bǔ)語
7.3 不定式主語
7.4It's for sb.和 It's of sb.
7.5 不定式作表語
7.6 不定式作定語
7.7 不定式作狀語
7.8 用作介詞的 to
7.9 省 to 的動詞不定式
7.10 動詞不定式的否定式
7.11 不定式的特殊句型 too…to…
7.12 不定式的特殊句型 so as to
7.13 不定式的特殊句型 Why not
7.147 不定式的時(shí)態(tài)和語態(tài)
7.15 動名詞與不定式
8.特殊詞精講
8.1stop doing/to do
8.2forget doing/to do
8.3remember doing/to do
8.4regret doing/to do
8.5cease doing/to do
8.6try doing/to do
8.7go on doing/to do8.8be
afraid doing/to do
8.9be
interested doing/to
do
8.10mean to doing/to do
8.11begin(start) doing/to
do
8.12 感官動詞 + doing/to do
9.分詞
9.1 分詞作定語
9.2 分詞作狀語
9.3 連詞+分詞(短語)
9.4 分詞作補(bǔ)語
9.5 分詞作表語
9.6 分詞作插入語
9.7 分詞的時(shí)態(tài)
9.8 分詞的語態(tài)
10.獨(dú)立主格
10.1 獨(dú)立主格
10.2With 的復(fù)合結(jié)構(gòu)
11.動詞的時(shí)態(tài)
11.1 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)的用法
11.2 一般過去時(shí)的用法
11.3used to / be used to
11.4 一般將來時(shí)
11.5be
going to / will
11.6be
to 和 be going to
11.7 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)表將來
11.8 用現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)表示將來
11.9 現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)
11.10 比較過去時(shí)與現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)
11.11 用于現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)的句型
11.12 比較 since 和 for
11.13since 的四種用法
11.14 延續(xù)動詞與瞬間動詞
11.15 過去完成時(shí)
11.16 用一般過去時(shí)代替完成時(shí)
11.17 將來完成時(shí)
11.18 現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)
11.19 不用進(jìn)行時(shí)的動詞
11.20 過去進(jìn)行時(shí)
11.21 將來進(jìn)行時(shí)
11.22 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替將來時(shí)
11.23 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替過去時(shí)
11.24 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替完成時(shí)
11.25 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替完成時(shí)
11.26 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替進(jìn)行時(shí)11.27 現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)代替將來時(shí)
11.28 時(shí)態(tài)一致
1.29 時(shí)態(tài)與時(shí)間狀語
12.動詞的語態(tài)
12.1Let 的用法
12.2 短語動詞的被動語態(tài)
12.3 表示"據(jù)說"或"相信" 的詞組
12.4 不用被動語態(tài)的情況
12.5 主動形式表示被動意義
12.6 被動語態(tài)表示主動意義
12.7need/want/require/worth
13.句子的種類
13.1 句子的種類
13.2 感嘆句結(jié)構(gòu)
13.3 強(qiáng)調(diào)句結(jié)構(gòu)
13.4 用助動詞進(jìn)行強(qiáng)調(diào)
13.5 反意疑問句
14.倒裝
14.1 倒裝句之全部倒裝
14.2 倒裝句之部分倒裝
14.3 以否定詞開頭作部分倒裝
14.4so, neither, nor 作部分倒裝
14.5only 在句首要倒裝的情況
14.6as, though 引導(dǎo)的倒裝句
14.7 其他部分倒裝
15.主謂一致
15.1 并列結(jié)構(gòu)作主語謂語用復(fù)數(shù)
15.2 主謂一致中的靠近原則
15.3 謂語動詞與前面的主語一致
15.4 謂語需用單數(shù)
15.5 指代意義決定謂語的單復(fù)數(shù)
15.6 與后接名詞或代詞保持一致
16.虛擬語氣
16.1 真是條件句
16.2 非真實(shí)條件句
16.3 混合條件句
16.4 虛擬條件句的倒裝
16.5 特殊的虛擬語氣詞：should
16.6wish 的用法
16.7 比較 if only 與 only if
16.8It is (high) time that
16.9need "不必做"和"本不該做"
17.名詞性從句
17.1 引導(dǎo)名詞性從句的連接詞17.2 名詞性 that-從句
17.3 名詞性 wh-從句
17.4if, whether 引導(dǎo)的名詞從句
17.5 否定轉(zhuǎn)移
18.定語從句
18.1 關(guān)系代詞引導(dǎo)的定語從句
18.2 關(guān)系副詞引導(dǎo)的定語從句
18.3 判斷關(guān)系代詞與關(guān)系副詞
18.4 限制性和非限制性定語從句
18.5 介詞+關(guān)系詞
18.6as, which 非限定性定語從句
18.7 先行詞和關(guān)系詞二合一
18.8what/whatever;that/what; who/whoever
18.9 關(guān)系代詞 that 的用法
19.狀語從句
19.1 地點(diǎn)狀語從句
19.2 方式狀語從句
19.3 原因狀語從句
19.4 目的狀語從句
19.5 結(jié)果狀語從句
19.6 條件狀語從句
19.7 讓步狀語從句
19.8 比較 while, when, as
19.9 比較 until 和 till
19.10 表示"一…就…"的結(jié)構(gòu)
20.連詞
20.1 并列連詞與并列結(jié)構(gòu)
20.2 比較 and 和 or
20.3 表示選擇的并列結(jié)構(gòu)
20.4 表示轉(zhuǎn)折或?qū)Ρ?/p>
20.5 表原因關(guān)系
20.6 比較 so 和 such
21.情態(tài)動詞
21.1 情態(tài)動詞的語法特征
21.2 比較 can 和 be able to
21.3 比較 may 和 might
21.4 比較 have
to 和 must
21.5 比較 have
to 和 must
21.6must 表示推測
21.7 表示推測的用法
21.8 情態(tài)動詞+ have
+過去分詞
21.9should 和 ought
to
21.10had better 表示"最好"
21.11would rather 表示"寧愿"21.12will 和 would
21.13 情態(tài)動詞的回答方式
21.14 帶 to 的情態(tài)動詞
21.15 比較 need 和 dare
1.名詞
名詞可以分為專有名詞(Proper Nouns)和普通名詞 (Common Nouns)，專有名詞是某個(gè)(些)
人，地方，機(jī)構(gòu)等專有的名稱，如 Beijing，China 等。普通名詞是一類人或東西或是一個(gè)抽象概念的名
詞，如：book，sadness 等。普通名詞又可分為下面四類：
1)個(gè)體名詞(Individual Nouns)：表示某類人或東西中的個(gè)體，如：gun。
2)集體名詞(Collective Nouns)：表示若干個(gè)個(gè)體組成的集合體，如：family。
3)物質(zhì)名詞(Material Nouns)：表示無法分為個(gè)體的實(shí)物，如：air。
4)抽象名詞(Abstract Nouns)：表示動作、狀態(tài)、品質(zhì)、感情等抽象概念，如：work。
個(gè)體名詞和集體名詞可以用數(shù)目來計(jì)算，稱為可數(shù)名詞(Countable Nouns)，物質(zhì)名詞和抽象名詞一般 無法用數(shù)目計(jì)算，稱為不可數(shù)名詞(Uncountable Nouns)。歸納一下，名詞的分類可以下圖表示：
1.1 名詞復(fù)數(shù)的規(guī)則變化
1.2 其他名詞復(fù)數(shù)的規(guī)則變化
1) 以 y 結(jié)尾的專有名詞，或元音字母+y 結(jié)尾的名詞變復(fù)數(shù)時(shí)，直接加 s 變復(fù)數(shù)：
如：
two Marys
the Henrys
monkey---monkeys holiday---holidays
比較：
層樓：storey ---storeys
story---stories
2) 以 o 結(jié)尾的名詞，變復(fù)數(shù)時(shí)：
a. 加 s，如： photo---photos
piano---pianosradio---radios
zoo---zoos;
b.
加 es，如：potato--potatoes tomato--tomatoes
c.
均可，如：zero---zeros / zeroes
3) 以 f 或 fe 結(jié)尾的名詞變復(fù)數(shù)時(shí)：
a.
加 s，如： belief---beliefs roof---roofs
safe---safes
gulf---gulfs;
b.
去 f,fe 加 ves，如：half---halves
knife---knives leaf---leaves wolf---wolves
wife---wives life---lives thief---thieves;
c. 均可,如： handkerchief:
handkerchiefs / handkerchieves
1.3 名詞復(fù)數(shù)的不規(guī)則變化
1)child---children
foot---feet
tooth---teeth
mouse---mice
man---men
woman---women
注意：與 man 和 woman 構(gòu)成的合成詞，其復(fù)數(shù)形式也是 -men 和-women。
如：an Englishman，
two Englishmen. 但 German 不是合成詞，故復(fù)數(shù)形式為 Germans;Bowman
是姓，其復(fù)數(shù)是 the Bowmans。
2)單復(fù)同形 如：
deer，sheep，fish，Chinese，Japanese
li，jin，yuan，two li，three mu，four jin
但除人民幣元、角、分外，美元、英鎊、法郎等都有復(fù)數(shù)形式。如:
a dollar, two dollars;
a meter, two meters
3)集體名詞，以單數(shù)形式出現(xiàn)，但實(shí)為復(fù)數(shù)。
如： people police
cattle 等本身就是復(fù)數(shù)，不能說 a people，a police，a cattle，但可以
說
a person，a policeman，a
head of cattle,the English，the British，the French，the Chinese，
the Japanese，the Swiss 等名詞，表示國民總稱時(shí)，作復(fù)數(shù)用。
如： The Chinese are industries and brave. 中國人民是勤勞勇敢的。
4)以 s 結(jié)尾，仍為單數(shù)的名詞，如：
a.
maths，politics，physics 等學(xué)科名詞，為不可數(shù)名詞，是單數(shù)。
b.
news 是不可數(shù)名詞。
c.
the United States，the United Nations 應(yīng)視為單數(shù)。
The United Nations was organized in 1945. 聯(lián)合國是 1945 年組建起來的。
d. 以復(fù)數(shù)形式出現(xiàn)的書名，劇名，報(bào)紙，雜志名，也可視為單數(shù)。
"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book.
<<一千零一夜>>是一本非常有趣的故事書。
5) 表示由兩部分構(gòu)成的東西，如：glasses (眼鏡) trousers,
clothes
若表達(dá)具體數(shù)目，要借助數(shù)量詞 pair(對，雙); suit(套);
a pair of glasses; two pairs of
trousers6) 另外還有一些名詞，其復(fù)數(shù)形式有時(shí)可表示特別意思，如：goods 貨物，waters 水域，fishes
(各種)魚
1.4 不可數(shù)名詞量的表示
1)物質(zhì)名詞
a.
當(dāng)物質(zhì)名詞轉(zhuǎn)化為個(gè)體名詞時(shí)。
比較： Cake
is a kind of food.
蛋糕是一種食物。
(不可數(shù))
These
cakes are sweet.
這些蛋糕很好吃。
(可數(shù))
b.
當(dāng)物質(zhì)名詞表示該物質(zhì)的種類時(shí)，名詞可數(shù)。
This factory produces steel. (不可數(shù))
We need various steels. (可數(shù))
c. 當(dāng)物質(zhì)名詞表示份數(shù)時(shí)，可數(shù)。
Our country is famous for tea.
我國因茶葉而聞名。
Two teas, please.
請來兩杯茶。
2) 抽象名詞有時(shí)也可數(shù)。
four freedoms 四大自由
the four modernizations 四個(gè)現(xiàn)代化
物質(zhì)名詞和抽象名詞可以借助單位詞表一定的數(shù)量。
如：
a
glass
of
water 一杯水
a
piece
of
advice 一條建議
1.5 定語名詞的復(fù)數(shù)
名詞作定語一般用單數(shù)，但也有以下例外。
1)
用復(fù)數(shù)作定語。
如：sports meeting 運(yùn)動會
students reading-room 學(xué)生閱覽室
talks table
談判桌
the foreign
languages department 外語系
2)
man, woman, gentleman 等作定語時(shí)，其單復(fù)數(shù)以所修飾的名詞的單復(fù)數(shù)而定。
如：men workers
women teachers
gentlemen officials
3)
有些原有 s 結(jié)尾的名詞，作定語時(shí)，s 保留。
如：goods train (貨車)
arms produce 武器生產(chǎn)
customs papers 海關(guān)文件
clothes brush 衣刷
4)
數(shù)詞+名詞作定語時(shí)，這個(gè)名詞一般保留單數(shù)形式。
如：two-dozen eggs 兩打/(二十四個(gè)雞蛋)a ten-mile walk 十里路
two-hundred trees 兩百棵樹
a five-year plan. 一個(gè)五年計(jì)劃
個(gè)別的有用復(fù)數(shù)作定語的，如： a
seven-years child
1.6 不同國家的人的單復(fù)數(shù)
1.7 名詞的格
在英語中有些名詞可以加"'s"來表示所有關(guān)系，帶這種詞尾的名詞形式稱為該名詞的所有格，如：a
teacher's book。名詞所有格的規(guī)則如下：
1)單數(shù)名詞詞尾加"'s"，復(fù)數(shù)名詞詞尾沒有 s，也要加"'s"，如 the boy's bag 男孩的書包，men's room
男廁所。
2) 若名詞已有復(fù)數(shù)詞尾-s ，只加"'"，如：the workers' struggle 工人的斗爭。
3) 凡不能加"'s"的名詞，都可以用"名詞+of +名詞"的結(jié)構(gòu)來表示所有關(guān)系，如：the title of the song
歌的名字。
4) 在表示店鋪或教堂的名字或某人的家時(shí)，名詞所有格的后面常常不出現(xiàn)它所修飾的名詞，如：the
barber's 理發(fā)店。
5) 如果兩個(gè)名詞并列，并且分別有's，則表示"分別有";只有一個(gè)'s，則表示'共有'。
如：John's and Mary's room(兩間)
John and Mary's room(一間)
6) 復(fù)合名詞或短語，'s 加在最后一個(gè)詞的詞尾。
如：a month or two's absence
2.冠詞和數(shù)詞
2.1 不定冠詞的用法
冠詞是虛詞，本身不能單獨(dú)使用，也沒有詞義，它用在名詞的前面，幫助指明名詞的含義。英語中的冠詞有三種，一種是定冠詞(the Definite Article)，另一種是不定冠詞(the Indefinite Article)，還有一種是零冠詞(Zero Article)。
不定冠詞 a (an)與數(shù)詞 one 同源，是"一個(gè)"的意思。a 用于輔音音素前，一般讀作[e]，而 an 則用
于元音音素前，一般讀做[en]。1)
表示"一個(gè)"，意為 one;指某人或某物，意為 a certain。
A Mr. Ling is waiting for you.
2) 代表一類人或物。
A knife is a tool for cutting with.
Mr. Smith is an engineer.
3) 詞組或成語。
a little / a few / a lot / a type of / a pile / a great many / many a / as a rule / in a hurry
/ in a minute / in a word / in a short while / after a while / have a cold / have a try / keep an
eye on / all of a sudden
2.2 定冠詞的用法
定冠詞 the 與指示代詞 this，that 同源，有"那(這)個(gè)"的意思，但較弱，可以和一個(gè)名詞連用，來
表示某個(gè)或某些特定的人或東西。
1)特指雙方都明白的人或物：
Take the medicine.
把藥吃了。
2)上文提到過的人或事：
He bought a house.
I've been
to the house.
他買了幢房子。我去過那幢房子。
3)指世上獨(dú)一物二的事物：
the sun， the sky， the moon， the earth
4)單數(shù)名詞連用表示一類事物，如：the dollar 美元;
the fox 狐貍;或與形容詞或分詞連用，表示一類人：the rich 富人; the living 生者。
5)用在序數(shù)詞和形容詞最高級，及形容詞 only， very， same 等前面：
Where do you live? I live on the second floor.
你住在哪?我住在二層。
That's the very thing I've been looking for.
那正是我要找的東西。
6)與復(fù)數(shù)名詞連用，指整個(gè)群體：
They are the teachers of this school.指全體教師)
They are teachers of this school. (指部分教師)
7)表示所有，相當(dāng)于物主代詞，用在表示身體部位的名詞前：
She caught me by the arm.. 她抓住了我的手臂。
8)用在某些由普通名詞構(gòu)成的國家名稱、機(jī)關(guān)團(tuán)體、階級、等專有名詞前：
the People's Republic of China 中華人民共和國
the United States 美國
9)用在表示樂器的名詞之前：
She plays the piano. 她會彈鋼琴。
10) 用在姓氏的復(fù)數(shù)名詞之前，表示一家人：
the Greens 格林一家人 (或格林夫婦)
11) 用在慣用語中：
in the day, in the morning (afternoon，evening), the day after tomorrow; the day before yesterday, the next morning, in the sky (water，field，country) in the dark, in the rain, in the distance, in the middle (of), in the end, on the whole, by the way, go to the theatre
2.3 零冠詞的用法
1) 國名，人名前通常不用定冠詞：England，Mary;
2)泛指的復(fù)數(shù)名詞，表示一類人或事物時(shí)，可不用定冠詞;
They are teachers. 他們是教師。
3)抽象名詞表示一般概念時(shí)，通常不加冠詞;
Failure is the mother of success. 失敗乃成功之母。
4)物質(zhì)名詞表示一般概念時(shí)，通常不加冠詞，當(dāng)表示特定的意思時(shí)，需要加定冠詞;
Man cannot live without water. 人離開水就無法生存。
5)在季節(jié)、月份、節(jié)日、 假日、日期、星期等表示時(shí)間的名詞之前，不加冠詞;
We go to school from Monday to Friday.
我們從星期一到星期五都上課。
6)在稱呼或表示官銜，職位的名詞前不加冠詞;
The guards took the American to General Lee.
士兵們把這個(gè)美國人送到李將軍那里。
7)在三餐、球類運(yùn)動和娛樂運(yùn)動的名稱前，不加冠詞 如：have breakfast，play chess
8)當(dāng)兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上名詞并用時(shí)，常省去冠詞;
I can't write without pen or pencil.
沒有鋼筆和鉛筆，我就寫不了字。
9)當(dāng) by 與火車等交通工具連用，表示一種方式時(shí)，中間無冠詞;by bus，by train;
10)有些個(gè)體名詞不用冠詞;如：
school，college，prison，market，hospital，bed，table，class，town，church，court 等個(gè)
體名詞，直接置于介詞后，表示該名詞的深層含義;
go to hospital 去醫(yī)院看病
go to the hospital 去醫(yī)院
(并不是去看病，而是有其他目的)
11)不用冠詞的序數(shù)詞;
a. 序數(shù)詞前有物主代詞
b. 序數(shù)詞作副詞
He came first in the race.
c. 在固定詞組中
at (the) first,first of all,
from first to last
2.4 冠詞與形容詞+名詞結(jié)構(gòu)
1) 兩個(gè)形容詞都有冠詞，表示兩個(gè)不同東西。
He raises a black and a white cat.
他養(yǎng)了一只黑貓和一只白貓。
The black and the white cats are hers.
這只黑貓和白貓都是他的。
2) 如后一個(gè)形容詞無冠詞，則指一物。
He raises a black and white cat.
他養(yǎng)了一只花貓。
2.5 冠詞位置
1) 不定冠詞位置
不定冠詞常位于名詞或名詞修飾語前。注意：
a. 位于下列形容詞之后： such，what，many，half，
I have never seen such an animal.
Many a man is fit for the job.
b. 當(dāng)名詞前的形容詞被副詞 as, so, too, how, however, enough 修飾時(shí)，不定冠詞應(yīng)放在形容詞之 后：
It is as pleasant a day as I have ever spent.
So short a time.
Too long a distance.
c. quite，rather 與單數(shù)名詞連用，冠詞放在其后。
但當(dāng) rather，quite 前仍有形容詞，不定冠詞放其前后均可。如：quite a lot
d. 在 as，though 引導(dǎo)的讓步狀語從句中，當(dāng)標(biāo)語為形容詞修飾的名詞時(shí)，不定冠詞放形容詞后：
Brave a man though he is，he trembles at the sight of snakes. 他盡管勇敢，可見到蛇還是發(fā)抖。
當(dāng)名詞被比較級形容詞修飾時(shí)，不定冠詞通常置于比較級形容詞之后。
2) 定冠詞位置
定冠詞通常位于名詞或名詞修飾語前，但放在 all， both，double，half，twice，three times 等詞之后，名詞之前。
All the students in the class went out. 班里的所有學(xué)生都出去了。
2.6 數(shù)詞
表示數(shù)目多少或順序多少的詞叫數(shù)詞，數(shù)詞分為基數(shù)詞和序數(shù)詞。表示數(shù)目多少的數(shù)詞叫基數(shù)詞;表示順序的數(shù)詞叫序數(shù)詞。
一、基數(shù)詞
1)基數(shù)詞寫法和讀法： 345 three hundred and forty-five;
2)基數(shù)詞一般是單數(shù)形式，但下列情況，常用復(fù)數(shù)：
a. 與 of 短語連用，表示概數(shù)，不能與具體數(shù)目連 用，如 scores of people 指許多人;
b. 在一些表示"一排"或"一組"的詞組里;
如：They arrived in twos and threes. 他們?nèi)齼蓛傻牡竭_(dá)了。
c. 表示"幾十歲";
d. 表示"年代"，用 in +the +數(shù)詞復(fù)數(shù);
e. 在乘法運(yùn)算的一種表示法里，如：3 x 5 = 15
Three fives is (are) fifteen.
二、序數(shù)詞
序數(shù)詞的縮寫形式： first---1st second---2nd
thirty-first---31st
三、 數(shù)詞的用法
1)倍數(shù)表示法
a. 主語+謂語+倍數(shù)(或分?jǐn)?shù))+
as + adj. + as
I have three times as many as you. 我有你三倍那么多。
b. 主語+謂語+倍數(shù)(分?jǐn)?shù))+ the
size (amount，length…) of…
The earth is 49 times the size
of the moon. 地球是月球的 49 倍。
c. 主語+謂語+倍數(shù)(分?jǐn)?shù))+ 形容詞(副詞)比較級+ than…
The grain output is 8 percent higher this year than that of last year.
今年比去年糧食產(chǎn)量增加 8%。
d. 還可以用 by+倍數(shù)，表示增加多少倍
The production of grain has been increased by four times this year.
今年糧食產(chǎn)量增加了 4 倍。2)分?jǐn)?shù)表示法
構(gòu)成：基數(shù)詞代表分子，序數(shù)詞代表分母。分子大于 1 時(shí)，分子的序數(shù)詞用單數(shù)，分母序數(shù)詞用復(fù)數(shù)：
1/3 one-third ; 3/37 three and three-sevenths.
3.代詞
代詞是代替名詞的一種詞類。大多數(shù)代詞具有名詞和形容詞的功能。英語中的代詞，按其意義、特征及在句中的作用分為：人稱代詞、物主代詞、指示代詞、自身代詞、相互代詞、疑問代詞、關(guān)系代詞和不定代詞八種。
一、人稱代詞是表示"我"、"你"、"他"、"她"、"它"、
"我們"、"你們"、"他們"的詞。人稱代詞有人稱、數(shù)和格的變化，見下表：
二、 物主代詞表示所有關(guān)系的代詞，也可叫做代詞所有格。物主代詞分形容性物主代詞和名詞性物主代 詞二種，其人物和數(shù)的變化見下表。
如：
I like his car.
我喜歡他的小汽車。
Our school is here，and theirs is there.
我們的學(xué)校在這兒，他們的在那兒。
三、 指示代詞表示"那個(gè)"、"這個(gè)"、"這些"、"那些"等指示概念的代詞。指示代詞有 this，that，these， those 等。
如： That is a good idea.
那是個(gè)好主意。
四、 表示"我自己"、"你自己"、"他自己"、"我們自己"、"你們自己"和"他們自己"等的代詞，叫做自身代詞，也稱為"反身代詞"。
如： She was talking to herself.
她自言自語。
五、 表示相互關(guān)系的代詞叫相互代詞，有 each other 和 one another 兩組，但在運(yùn)用中，這兩組詞
沒什么區(qū)別。
如： They love each other.
他們彼此相愛。
六、 不是指明代替任何特定名詞的代詞叫做不定代詞。常見的不定代詞有 a11，both，each，every
等，以及含有 some-，any-，no-等的合成代詞，如 anybody， something，no one。這些不定代詞大都可以代替名詞和形容詞，在句中作主語、賓語、表語和定語，
但 none 和由 some，any，no 等構(gòu)成的復(fù)合不定代詞只能作主語、賓語或表語;every 和 no 只能作定語。如：
--- Do you have a car?
--你有一輛小汽車嗎?
--- Yes，I have one.
--是的，我有一輛。
--- I don't know any of them.
他們，我一個(gè)也不認(rèn)識。
七、 疑問代詞有 who，whom，whose，what 和 which 等。在句子中用來構(gòu)成特殊疑問句。疑問代詞都可用作連接代詞，引導(dǎo)名詞性從句(主語從句、賓語從句和表語從句)
如：Tell me who he is.
告訴我他是誰。
八、 關(guān)系代詞有 who，whom，whose，that，which，as 等，可用作引導(dǎo)從句的關(guān)聯(lián)詞。它們在定
語從句中可作主語、表語、賓語、定語等;另一方面它們又代表主句中為定語從句所修飾的那個(gè)名詞或代詞(通稱為先行詞)。
如： He is the man whom you have been looking for.
他就是你要找的那個(gè)人。
3.1 人稱代詞的用法
1)人稱代詞的主格在句子中作主語或主語補(bǔ)語，例如：
John waited a while but eventually he went home.
約翰等了一會兒，最后他回家了。
John hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was she.
約翰希望那位乘客是瑪麗，還真是她。
說明：在復(fù)合句中，如果主句和從句主語相同，代詞主語要用在從句中，名詞主語用在主句中，例如：
When he arrived, John went straight to the bank.
約翰一到就直接去銀行了。
2)人稱代詞的賓格在句子中作賓語或介詞賓語，但在口語中也能作主語補(bǔ)語，第一人稱在省略句中，還可以作主語，例如：
I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her.
我看到她和他們在一起，至少我認(rèn)為是她。(her 做賓語，them 做介詞賓語，her 做主語補(bǔ)語)
a. -- Who broke the vase? --誰打碎了花瓶?
b. -- Me.
--我。(me 做主語補(bǔ)語= It's me.)說明：在上面兩例句中，her 和 me 分別作主語補(bǔ)語?，F(xiàn)代英語中多用賓格，在正式文體中這里應(yīng)為 she 和 I。
3.2 人稱代詞之主、賓格的替換
1) 賓格代替主格
a.在簡短對話中，當(dāng)人稱代詞單獨(dú)使用或在 not 后，多用賓語。
---- I like English.
--我喜歡英語。
---- Me too.
--我也喜歡。
---- Have more
wine?
--再來點(diǎn)酒喝嗎?
---- Not me.
--我可不要了。
b.在表示比較的非正式的文體中，常用賓格代替主格。 但如果比較狀語的謂語保留，則主語只能用主 格。
He is taller than I/me.
He is taller than I am.
2) 主格代替賓格
a. 在介詞 but，except 后，有時(shí)可用主格代替賓格。
b. 在電話用語中常用主格。
---- I wish to speak to Mary. --我想和瑪麗通話。
---- This is she. --我就是瑪麗。
注意：在動詞 be 或 to
be 后的人稱代詞視其前面的名詞或代詞而定。
I thought it was she. 我以為是她。 (主格----主格)
I thought it to be her. (賓格----賓格)
I was taken to be she. 我被當(dāng)成了她。 (主格----主格)
They took me to be her. 他們把我當(dāng)成了她。 (賓格----賓格)
3.3 代詞的指代問題
1)不定代詞 anybody，everybody，nobody，anyone， someone， everyone，no one， 及
whoever 和 person 在正式場合使用時(shí)，可用 he, his, him 代替。
Nobody came, did he? 誰也沒來，是嗎?
2)動物名詞的指代一般用 it 或 they 代替，有時(shí)也用 he, she，帶有親切的感情色彩。
Give the cat some food. She is hungry. 給這貓一些吃的。她餓了。
3)指代車或國家，船舶的名詞，含感情色彩時(shí)常用 she。
3.4 并列人稱代詞的排列順序
1) 單數(shù)人稱代詞并列作主語時(shí)，其順序?yàn)椋?/p>
第二人稱 -> 第三人稱 -> 第一人稱
you -> he/she; it -> I
You, he and I should return on time.
2) 復(fù)數(shù)人稱代詞作主語時(shí)，其順序?yàn)椋?/p>
第一人稱 -> 第二人稱 -> 第三人稱
we -> you -> They
注意： 在下列情況中，第一人稱放在前面。
a. 在承認(rèn)錯(cuò)誤，承擔(dān)責(zé)任時(shí)，
It was I and John that made her angry.
是我和約翰惹她生氣了。
b. 在長輩對晚輩，長官對下屬說話時(shí)，如長官為第一人稱， 如：I and you try to finish it.
c. 并列主語只有第一人稱和第三人稱時(shí)，
d. 當(dāng)其他人稱代詞或名詞被定語從句修飾時(shí)。
3.5 物主代詞
1)物主代詞既有表示所屬的作用又有指代作用，例如：
John had cut his finger; apparently there was a broken glass on his desk.
約翰割破了手指，顯而易見，他桌子上有個(gè)破玻璃杯。
物主代詞有形容詞性(my, your 等)和名詞性(mine, yours 等)兩種，形容詞性的物主代詞屬于限定詞。
名詞性的物主代詞在用法上相當(dāng)于省略了中心名詞的 --'s 屬格結(jié)構(gòu)，例如：
Jack's cap 意為 The cap is Jack's.
His cap 意為 The cap is his.
2) 名詞性物主代詞的句法功能
a. 作主語，例如：
May I use your pen? Yours works better.
我可以用一用你的鋼筆嗎?
你的比我的好用。
b. 作賓語，例如：
I love my motherland as much as you love yours.
我愛我的祖國就像你愛你的祖國一樣深。
c. 作介詞賓語，例如：
Your should interpret what I said in my sense of the word, not in yours.
你應(yīng)當(dāng)按我所用的詞義去解釋我說的話，而不能按你自己的意義去解釋。
d. 作主語補(bǔ)語，例如：
The life I have is yours. It's yours. It's yours. 我的生命屬于你，屬于你，屬于你。
3.6 雙重所有格
物主代詞不可與 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another, which 等詞一起前置，修飾一個(gè)名詞，而必須用雙重所有格。
公式為：
a, an, this, that +名詞+of +名詞性物主代詞。如：
a friend of mine.
each brother of his.
3.7 反身代詞1)
1)列表
2)做賓語
a. 有些動詞需有反身代詞
absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave
We enjoyed ourselves very much last night. 我們昨晚玩得很開心。
Please help yourself to some fish. 請你隨便吃點(diǎn)魚。
b. 用于及物動詞+賓語+介詞
take pride in, be annoyed with, help oneself to sth.
I could not dress (myself) up at that time.
那個(gè)時(shí)候我不能打扮我自己。
注：有些動詞后不跟反身代詞， get up, sit-down, stand up, wake up 等。
Please sit down. 請坐。
3) 作表語; 同位語
be oneself: I am not myself today.
我今天不舒服。
The thing itself is not important.
事情本身并不重要。
4) 在不強(qiáng)調(diào)的情況下，but, except, for 等介詞后賓語用反身代詞或人稱代詞賓格均可。如：
No one but myself (me) is hurt.
注意：
a. 反身代詞本身不能單獨(dú)作主語。 (錯(cuò))
Myself drove the car. (對)
I myself drove the car. 我自己開車。
b. 但在 and, or, nor 連接的并列主語中，第二個(gè)主語可用反身代詞，特別是 myself 作主語。
Charles and myself saw it.
5)第二人稱作賓語，要用反身代詞。
You should be proud of yourself. 你應(yīng)為自己感到驕傲。
3.8 相互代詞
1)相互代詞只有 each other 和 one another 兩個(gè)詞組。他們表示句中動詞所敘述的動作或感覺在涉及的各個(gè)對象之間是相互存在的，例如：
It is easy to see that the people of different cultures have always copied each other.
顯而易見，不同文化的人總是相互借鑒的。
2) 相互代詞的句法功能：a. 作動詞賓語;
People should love one another. 人們應(yīng)當(dāng)彼此相愛。
b. 可作介詞賓語;
Does bark, cocks crow, frogs croak to each other.
吠、雞鳴、蛙兒對唱。
說明：傳統(tǒng)語法認(rèn)為，相互關(guān)系存在于兩個(gè)人或物之間用 each other， 存在于兩個(gè)以上人和物之間用
one another?，F(xiàn)代英語中，兩組詞交替使用的實(shí)例也很多，例如：
He put all the books beside each other.
他把所有書并列擺放起來。
He put all the books beside one another.
他把所有書并列擺放起來。
Usually these small groups were independent of each other.
這些小團(tuán)體通常是相互獨(dú)立的。
c. 相互代詞可加-'s 構(gòu)成所有格，例如：
The students borrowed each other's notes.
學(xué)生們互借筆記。
3.9 指示代詞
1) 指示代詞分單數(shù)(this / that)和復(fù)數(shù)(these / those)兩種形式，既可作限定詞又可做代詞，
例如：
2) 指示代詞的句法功能;
a. 作主語
This is the way to do it.
這事兒就該這樣做。
b. 作賓語
I like this better than that.
我喜歡這個(gè)甚至那個(gè)。
c. 作主語補(bǔ)語
My point is this.
我的觀點(diǎn)就是如此。
d. 作介詞賓語
I don't say no to that.
我并未拒絕那個(gè)。There is no fear of that.
那并不可怕。
說明 1：
指示代詞在作主語時(shí)可指物也可指人，但作其他句子成分時(shí)只能指物，不能指人，例如：
(對)That is my teacher. 那是我的老師。( that 作主語，指人)
(對)He is going to marry this girl. 他要和這個(gè)姑娘結(jié)婚。(this 作限定詞)
(錯(cuò))He is going to marry this. (this 作賓語時(shí)不能指人)
(對)I bought this. 我買這個(gè)。(this 指物，可作賓語)
說明 2：
That 和 those 可作定語從句的先行詞，但 this 和 these 不能，同時(shí)，在作先行詞時(shí)，只有 those
可指人，試比較：
(對) He admired that which looked beautiful. 他贊賞外表漂亮的東西。
(對) He admired those who looked beautiful. 他贊賞那些外表漂亮的人。(those 指人)
(錯(cuò)) He admired that who danced well. (that 作賓語時(shí)不能指人)
(對) He admired those who danced well. 他贊賞跳舞好的人。(those 指人)
(對) He admired those which looked beautiful. 他贊賞那些外表漂亮的東西。(those 指物)
3.10 疑問代詞
1) 疑問代詞在句中起名詞詞組的作用，用來構(gòu)成疑問句。疑問代詞有下列幾個(gè)：
指人： who, whom, whose
指物： what
既可指人又可指物： which
2) 疑問代詞在句中應(yīng)位于謂語動詞之前，沒有性和數(shù)的變化，除 who 之外也沒有格的變化。what,
which, whose 還可作限定詞。試比較：
疑問代詞：Whose are these books on the desk?
桌上的書是誰的?
What was the directional flow of U. S. territorial expansion?
美國的領(lǐng)土擴(kuò)張是朝哪個(gè)方向的?
限定詞： Whose books are these on the desk?
桌上的書是誰的?
What events led to most of the east of the Mississippi River becoming part of the United States?
哪些事件使密西西比河以東的大部分土地歸屬于美國?
說明 1：
無論是做疑問代詞還是限定詞，which 和 what 所指的范圍不同。what 所指的范圍是無限的，而
which 則指在一定的范圍內(nèi)，例如：
Which girls do you like best?
你喜歡哪幾個(gè)姑娘?
What girls do you like best?
你喜歡什么樣的姑娘?
說明 2：Whom 是 who 的賓格，在書面語中，它作動詞賓語或介詞賓語，在口語中作賓語時(shí)，可用 who 代替，但在介詞后只能用 whom, 例如：
Who(m) did you meet on the street?
你在街上遇到了誰?(作動詞賓語)
Who(m) are you taking the book to?
你要把這書帶給誰?(作介詞賓語，置句首)
To whom did you speak on the campus?
你在校園里和誰講話了?(作介詞賓語，置介詞 后，不能用 who 取代。)
說明 3：
疑問代詞用于對介詞賓語提問時(shí)，過去的文體中介詞和疑問代詞通常一起放在句首，現(xiàn)代英語中，
疑問代詞在句首，介詞在句未，例如：
For what do most people live and work?
大部分人生活和工作的目的是什么?(舊文體)
What are you looking for?
你在找什么?(現(xiàn)代英語)
說明 4：
疑問代詞還可引導(dǎo)名詞性從句，例如：
I can't make out what he is driving at.
我不知道他用意何在。
Can you tell me whose is the blue shirt on the bed?
你能告訴我床上的藍(lán)襯衣是誰的嗎?
Much of what you say I agree with, but
I cannot go all the way with you.
你說的我大部分同意，但并不完全贊同。
3.11 關(guān)系代詞
1) 關(guān)系代詞用來引導(dǎo)定語從句。它代表先行詞，同時(shí)在從句中作一定的句子成分，例如：The girl to whom I spoke is my cousin. 跟我講話的姑娘是我表妹。(該句中 whom 既代表先行詞 the girl， 又在從句中作介詞 to 的賓語。)
2) 關(guān)系代詞有主格，賓格和屬格之分，并有指人與指物之分。在限定性定語從句中，that 可指人也
可指物，見表：
例如：
This is the pencil whose point is broken. 這就是那個(gè)折了尖的鉛筆。 (whose 指物，在限定性定語從句中作定語)
He came back for the book which he had forgotten. 他回來取他丟下的書。(which 指物，在限定性定語從句中作賓語，可以省略)
3) 關(guān)系代詞 which 的先行詞可以是一個(gè)句子，例如：
He said he saw me there, which was a lie. 他說在那兒看到了我，純屬謊言。
說明： 關(guān)系代詞 that 在從句中作賓語或表語時(shí)可省略， 例如：
I've forgotten much of the Latin I once knew. 我過去懂拉丁語，現(xiàn)在大都忘了。
He's changed. He's not the man he was. 他變化很大，已不是過去的他了。
3.12every , no, all, both, neither, nor
1)不定代詞有
all , both, every, each, either, neither, more, little, few, much, many, another, other, some,
any , one, no 以及 some, something, anything, everything, somebody, someone, anybody,
anyone, nothing , nobody, no one, none, everybody, everyone.等。
2) 不定代詞的功能與用法
a. 除 every 和 no 外不定代詞既可用作名詞，也可用作形容詞。every 和 no 在句中只能作定語。
I have no idea about it.
b. all 都，指三者以上。
all 的主謂一致：all 的單復(fù)數(shù)由它所修飾或指代的名詞的單復(fù)數(shù)決定。
All goes well. 一切進(jìn)展得很好。
all 通常不與可數(shù)名詞單數(shù)連用，如：不說 all the book，而說 the whole book。
但 all 可與表時(shí)間的可數(shù)名詞單數(shù)連用，如 all day，all night，all the year; 但習(xí)慣上不說 all hour，all century。
all 還可以與一些特殊的單數(shù)名詞連用，如 all China， all the city， all my life， all the way
3) both 都，指兩者。
a. both 與復(fù)數(shù)動詞連用，但 both… and…可與單數(shù)名詞連用。
b. both, all 都可作同位語，其位置在行為動詞前， be 動詞之后。如果助動詞或情態(tài)動詞后面的實(shí)
義動詞省 去，則位于助動詞或情態(tài)動詞之前。
Who can speak Japanese?
We both (all) can.
4) neither 兩者都不
a. neither 作主語時(shí)，謂語動詞用單數(shù)。
b. 作定語與單數(shù)名詞連用，但 neither… nor 用作并列連詞，可與復(fù)數(shù)名詞連用。其謂語采用就近原則。
c. 可用于下列句型，避免重復(fù)。
She can't sing，neither (can) he.neither 與 nor
d. 如前句是否定式從句，則主句用 neither，而不用 nor。
If you don't do it，neither should I. 如果你不干，我也不干。
e. 如后連續(xù)有幾個(gè)否定句式，則用 nor，不用 neither。
He can't sing，nor dance，nor skate.
3.13none, few, some, any, one, ones
一、 none 無
1) none 作主語，多與 of 構(gòu)成短語
none of。 在答語中，none 可單獨(dú)使用。
Are there any pictures on the wall? None.
2) none 作主語，謂語動詞單復(fù)數(shù)均可。但如做表語，則其單復(fù)數(shù)與表語一致。
It is none of your business.
二、few 一些，少數(shù)
few 作主語時(shí)，謂語動詞用復(fù)數(shù)，多用于肯定句。
三、some 一些
1) 可與復(fù)數(shù)名詞及不可數(shù)名詞連用。
2) 當(dāng)做"某一"解時(shí)，也可與單數(shù)名詞連用。(= a certain)
You will be sorry for this some day. 總有一天，你會后悔這件事的。
A certain (some) person has seen you break the rule. 某些人不同意你的看法。
注意：
(1)在肯定疑問句中用 some 代替 any。
(2)some 用于其他句式中:
a. 肯定疑問句中：說話人認(rèn)為對方的答案會是肯定的，或期望得到肯定回答時(shí)。
Would you like 句式中，表委婉請求或建議，如：
Would you like some coffee?
b. 在條件狀語從句中表示確定的意義時(shí)，如：
If you need some help，let me know.
c. some 位于主語部分,
Some students haven't been there before.
d. 當(dāng)否定的是整體中的部分時(shí)，some 可用于否定句。如：
I haven't heard from some of my old friends these years.
這些年我沒有收到一些老朋友的信。
四、any 一些
1) any 多用于否定句和疑問句和條件狀語從句中。
當(dāng)句中含有任何的意思時(shí)，any 可用于肯定句。
Here are three novels. You may read any. 這有三本小說，你可任讀一本。
五、one, ones 為復(fù)數(shù)形式
ones 必須和形容詞連用。如果替代的名詞時(shí)無形容詞在前，則用 some, any，而不用 ones。
Have you bought any rulers? Yes，I 've bought some.
3.14 代詞比較辯異 one，that 和 it
one 表示泛指，that 和 it 表示特指。that 與所指名詞為同類，但不是同一個(gè)，而 it 與所指名詞為同一個(gè)。
I can't find my hat. I think I must buy one. (不定)
我找不到我的帽子了。我想我該去買一頂。
The hat you bought is bigger than that I bought.
(同類但不同個(gè))
你買的那頂帽子比我買的大。
I can't find my hat. I don' t know where I put it.
( 同一物)
我找不到我的帽子。我不知道我把它放在哪了。
3.15one/another/the other
one… the other
只有兩個(gè)
some… the others
有三個(gè)以上
one… another，another…
some… others，others…
others = other people/things
the others = the rest 剩余的全部
1) 泛指另一個(gè)用 another。
2) 一定范圍內(nèi)兩人(物)，一個(gè)用 one，另一個(gè)用 the other。
3) 一定范圍內(nèi)三者，一個(gè)用 one，另一個(gè)用 one (another)，第三個(gè)可用 the other，a third。
4) 一定范圍內(nèi)，除去一部分人/物，剩余的全部用 the others。
5) 泛指別的人或物時(shí)，用 others 當(dāng)在一定范圍內(nèi)，除去一部分后，剩余部分但不是全部時(shí)，也用 others。
3.16“the”的妙用
He is one of the students who help me.
He is the one of the students who helps me.
他是幫我的學(xué)生之一。
第一句定語從句與 the students 一致。
第二句定語從句與 the one 一致。
3.17anyone/any one;no one/none;every/each
1.anyone 和 any one
anyone 僅指人，any one 既可指人，也可指物。
2.no one 和 none
a) none 后跟 of 短語，既可指人又可指物，而 no one 只單獨(dú)使用，只指人。
b) none 作主語，謂語動詞用單，復(fù)數(shù)均可，而 no one 作主語謂語動詞只能是單數(shù)。
None of you could lift it. 你們中沒有人可舉起它。
---- Did any one call me up just now? --剛才有人打電話給我嗎?
---- No one. --沒有。
3.every 和 each
1) every 強(qiáng)調(diào)全體的概念， each 強(qiáng)調(diào)個(gè)體概念。
Every student in our school works hard. 我們學(xué)校的學(xué)生都很用功。
Each student may have one book.. 每個(gè)學(xué)生都可有一本書。
2) every 指三個(gè)以上的人或物(含三個(gè))，each 指兩個(gè)以上的人或物 (含兩個(gè))。
3) every 只作形容詞，不可單獨(dú)使用。each 可作代詞或形容詞。
Every student has to take one.
Each boy has to take one.
Each of the boys has to take one.
4) every 不可以作狀語，each 可作狀語。
5) every 有反復(fù)重復(fù)的意思，如 every two weeks 等; each 沒有。
6) every 與 not 連用，表示部分否定;
each 和 not 連用表示全部否定。
Every man is not honest. 并非每個(gè)人都誠實(shí)。
Each man is not honest. 這兒每個(gè)人都不誠實(shí)。
3.18both, either, neither, all, any, none
這些詞都可用作代詞或形容詞。其位置都在 be 動詞之后，行為動詞之前或第一助動詞之后。
1) both (兩者都)，either(兩者中任何一個(gè))， neither (兩者都不)。以上詞使用范圍為兩個(gè)人或物。
Neither of the two boys is clever. 兩個(gè)男孩都不聰明。
2) both，either
both 與復(fù)數(shù)連用，either 與單數(shù)連用。
Both the boys are clever. 兩個(gè)男孩都很聰明。
Either of the two boys is clever. 兩個(gè)男孩都很聰明。
There are flowers on both sides of the street. (兩岸)
There are flowers on either side of the street. (岸的兩邊)
路邊長滿了野花。
3) all (所有的，全部的人或物)，any (任何一個(gè))， none (都不)。 以上詞使用范圍為三者以上。
All the flowers are gone. 所有的花都謝了。
I don't like any of the flowers. 這些花我都不喜歡。
I like none of the flowers. 這些花我都不喜歡。
注意：all 與 none 用法一樣。跟單數(shù)名詞，用單數(shù)動詞;跟復(fù)數(shù)名詞，用復(fù)數(shù)動詞。
All of the students are there. 所有的學(xué)生都在那。
All (of) the milk is there. 所有的牛奶都在那。
3.19many, much
Many，much 都意為"許多"， many + 可數(shù)名詞，much + 不可數(shù)名詞。
How many people are there at the meeting?
How much time has we left?
Many of the workers were at the meeting.
Much of the time was spent on learning.
3.20few, little, a few,
a little
(a) few + 可數(shù)名詞, (a) little + 不可數(shù)名詞
a few / a little 為肯定含義，還有一點(diǎn) few / little 為否定含義，沒有多少了。
He has a few friends. 他有幾個(gè)朋友。
He has few friends. 他幾乎沒有朋友。
We still have a little time. 我們還有點(diǎn)時(shí)間。
There is little time left.幾乎沒剩下什么時(shí)間了。
固定搭配:
only a few (=few)
not a few (=many)
quite a few (=many)
many a (=many)
Many books were sold.
Many a book was sold.
賣出了許多書。
4.形容詞和副詞
4.1 形容詞及其用法
形容詞修飾名詞，說明事物或人的性質(zhì)或特征。通常， 可將形容詞分成性質(zhì)形容詞和敘述形容詞兩類，其位置不一定都放在名詞前面。
1) 直接說明事物的性質(zhì)或特征的形容詞是性質(zhì)形容詞，它有級的變化，可以用程度副詞修飾，在句中可作定語、表語和補(bǔ)語。例如：hot 熱的。
2) 敘述形容詞只能作表語，所以又稱為表語形容詞。這類形容詞沒有級的變化，也不可用程度副詞修飾。
大多數(shù)以 a 開頭的形容詞都屬于這一類。例如：afraid 害怕的。
(錯(cuò)) He is an ill man.
(對) The man is ill.
(錯(cuò)) She is an afraid girl.(對) The girl is afraid.
這類詞還有： well，unwell，ill，faint，afraid，alike，alive，alone，asleep，awake 等。
3)形容詞作定語修飾名詞時(shí)，要放在名詞的前邊。但是如果形容詞修飾以-thing 為字尾的詞語時(shí)，要放 在這些詞之后，例如： something nice
4.2 以-ly 結(jié)尾的形容詞
1)大部分形容詞加-ly 可構(gòu)成副詞。但 friendly，deadly，lovely，lonely，likely，lively， ugly， brotherly，仍為形容詞。
改錯(cuò)：
(錯(cuò)) She sang lovely.
(錯(cuò)) He spoke to me very friendly.
(對) Her singing was lovely.
(對) He spoke to me in a very friendly way.
2)有些以-ly 結(jié)尾既為形容詞，也為副詞。
daily，weekly，monthly，yearly，early
The Times is a daily paper.
The Times is published daily.
4.3 用形容詞表示類別和整體
1) 某些形容詞加上定冠詞可以泛指一類人，與謂語動詞的復(fù)數(shù)連接。如：the dead，the living，the rich， the poor，the blind，the hungry
The poor are losing hope.
2) 有關(guān)國家和民族的形容詞加上定冠詞指這個(gè)民族的整體，與動詞的復(fù)數(shù)連用。
the British，the English，the French，the Chinese.
The English have wonderful sense of humor.
4.4 多個(gè)形容詞修飾名詞的順序
多個(gè)形容詞修飾名詞時(shí)，其順序?yàn)椋?/p>
限定詞--數(shù)詞--描繪詞--(大小，長短，形狀，新舊，顏色) --出處--材料性質(zhì)，類別--名詞
a small round table
a tall gray building
a dirty old brown shirt
a famous German medical school
an expensive Japanese sports car
典型例題:
1) Tony is going camping with ___ boys.
A. little two other
B. two little other
C. two other little
D. little other two
答案：C。由"限定詞--數(shù)詞--描繪詞--(大小，長短，形狀，新舊，顏色) --性質(zhì)--名詞"的公式可知數(shù)
詞，描繪詞，性質(zhì)依次順序，只有 C 符合答案。
2) One day they crossed the ____bridge behind the palace.
A. old Chinese stone
B. Chinese old stone
C. old stone Chinese
D. Chinese stone
old答案 A. 幾個(gè)形容詞修飾一個(gè)名詞，他們的排列順序是：年齡，形狀，大小+顏色+來源+質(zhì)地+用途+ 國家+名詞。
3) ---- How was your recent visit to Qingdao?
---- It was great.
We visited some friends，and spent
the ___days at the seaside.
A. few last sunny
B. last few sunny
C. last sunny few
D. few sunny last
答案：B。本題考查多個(gè)形容詞的排序問題。一般與被修飾形容詞關(guān)系密切的形容詞靠近名詞;如果幾個(gè) 形容詞的重要性差不多，音節(jié)少的形容詞在前，音節(jié)多的方在后，在不能確定時(shí)，可參照下表：
限定詞+數(shù)量詞(序數(shù)詞在前，基數(shù)詞在后)+性狀形容詞+大小、長短、高低等形體+ those + three + beautiful + large + square
新舊+顏色+國籍+材料+名詞
old + brown + wood + table
4.5 副詞及其基本用法
副詞主要用來修飾動詞，形容詞，副詞或其他結(jié)構(gòu)。
一、副詞的位置：
1) 在動詞之前。
2) 在 be 動詞、助動詞之后。
3) 多個(gè)助動詞時(shí)，副詞一般放在第一個(gè)助動詞后。
注意：
a. 大多數(shù)方式副詞位于句尾，但賓語過長，副詞可以提前，以使句子平衡。
We could see very clearly a strange light ahead of us.
b. 方式副詞 well，badly 糟、壞，hard 等只放在句尾。
He speaks English well.
二、副詞的排列順序：
1) 時(shí)間，地點(diǎn)副詞，小單位的在前，大單位在后。
2) 方式副詞，短的在前，長的在后，并用 and 或 but 等連詞連接。
Please write slowly and carefully.
3) 多個(gè)不同副詞排列：程度+地點(diǎn)+方式+時(shí)間副詞。
注意：副詞 very 可以修飾形容詞，但不能修飾動詞。
改錯(cuò)：(錯(cuò)) I very like English.
(對) I like English very much.
注意：副詞 enough 要放在形容詞的后面，形容詞 enough 放在名詞前后都可。
I don't know him well enough.
There is enough food for everyone to eat.
There is food enough for everyone to eat.
4.6 兼有兩種形式的副詞
1) close 與 closely
close 意思是"近"; closely 意思是"仔細(xì)地"He is sitting close to me.
Watch him closely.
2) late 與 lately
late 意思是"晚"; lately 意思是"最近"
You have come too late.
What have you been doing lately?
3) deep 與 deeply
deep 意思是"深"，表示空間深度;deeply 時(shí)常表示感情上的深度，"深深地"
He pushed the stick deep into the mud.
Even father was deeply moved by the film.
4) high 與 highly
high 表示空間高度;highly 表示程度，相當(dāng)于 much
The plane was flying high.
I think highly of your opinion.
5) wide 與 widely
wide 表示空間寬度;widely 意思是"廣泛地"，"在許多地方"
He opened the door wide.
English is widely used in the world.
6) free 與 freely
free 的意思是"免費(fèi)";freely 的意思是"無限制地"
You can eat free in my restaurant whenever you like.
You may speak freely; say what you like.
4.7 形容詞與副詞的比較級
大多數(shù)形容詞(性質(zhì)形容詞)和副詞有比較級和最高級的變化，即原級、比較級和最高級，用來表示事物的等級差別。原級即形容詞的原形，比較級和最高級有規(guī)則變化和不規(guī)則變化兩種。
1) 規(guī)則變化
單音節(jié)詞和少數(shù)雙音節(jié)詞，加詞尾-er，-est 來構(gòu)成比較級和最高級。
2) 不規(guī)則變化
4.8as + 形容詞或副詞原級 + as
1)在否定句或疑問句中可用 so… as。
He cannot run so/as fast as you.
2)當(dāng) as… as 中間有名詞時(shí)采用以下格式。
as +形容詞+ a +單數(shù)名詞
as + many/much +名詞
This is as good an example as the other is.
I can carry as much paper as you can..
3)用表示倍數(shù)的詞或其他程度副詞做修飾語時(shí)，放在 as 的前面。
This room is twice as big as that one.
Your room is the same size as mine.
4) 倍數(shù)+ as + adj. + as <=> 倍數(shù)+ then + of
This bridge is three times as long as that one.
This bridge is three times the length of that one.
Your room is twice as large as mine.
Your room is twice the size of mine.
4.9 比較級形容詞或副詞 + than
You are taller than I.
They lights in your room are as bright as those in mine.
注意：
1)要避免重復(fù)使用比較級。
(錯(cuò)) He is more cleverer than his brother.
(對) He is more clever than his brother.
(對) He is clever than his brother.
2)要避免將主語含在比較對象中。
(錯(cuò)) China is larger that any country in Asia.
(對) China is larger than any other countries in Asia.
3)要注意對應(yīng)句型，遵循前后一致的原則。
The population of Shanghai is larger than that of Beijing.
It is easier to make a plan than to carry it out.
4)要注意冠詞的使用，后有名詞的時(shí)候，前面才有可能有名詞。
比較：Which is large, Canada or Australia?
Which is the larger country, Canada or Australia?
She is taller than her two sisters.
She is the taller of the two sisters.
4.10 可修飾比較級的詞
1)a bit, a little, rather, much, far, by far, many, a lot, lots, a great deal, any, still, even 等
2)還可以用表示倍數(shù)的詞或度量名詞作修飾語。
3)以上詞(除 by far)外，必須置于比較級形容詞或副詞的前面。
典型例題:
1) ---- Are you feeling ____?
---- Yes，I'm fine now.
A.any well
B. any better
C. quite good
D. quite better
答案：B.
any 可修飾比較級，quite 修飾原級，well 的比較級為 better.
2)The experiment was____ easier
than we had expected.
A. more
B. much more
C. much
D. more much
答案：C. much 可修飾比較級，因此 B，C 都說得通，但 easier 本身已是比較級，不需 more，因此 C
為正確答案。
3)If there were no examinations, we should have ___ at school.
A. the happiest time
B. a more happier time
C. much happiest time
D. a much happier time
答案：D。
4.11many,old 和 far
1) 如果后接名詞時(shí)，
much 、more +不可數(shù)名詞 ，
many 、more +可數(shù)名詞復(fù)數(shù)
2) old 有兩種比較級和最高級形式: older/oldest 和 elder/eldest。 elder，eldest 只用于兄弟姐妹的長幼關(guān)系。
My elder brother is an engineer.
Mary is the eldest of the three sisters.
3) far 有兩種比較級，farther，further. 在英語中兩者都可指距離。
在美語中，father 表示距離，further 表示進(jìn)一步。
I have nothing further to say.
4.12the + 最高級 + 比較范圍
1) The Sahara is the biggest desert in the world.
形容詞最高級前通常必須用定冠詞 the，副詞最高級前可不用。
形容詞 most 前面沒有 the，不表示最高級的含義，只表示"非常"。
It is a most important problem.
=It is a very important problem.
注意： 使用最高級要注意將主語包括在比較范圍內(nèi)。
(錯(cuò)) Tom is the tallest of his three brothers.
(對) Tom is the tallest of the three brothers.
2) 下列詞可修飾最高級，by far, far, much, mostly, almost
This hat is nearly / almost the biggest.
注意：
a. very 可修飾最高級，但位置與 much 不同。
This is the very best.
This is much the best.
b. 序數(shù)詞通常只修飾最高級。
Africa is the second largest continent.
3) 句型轉(zhuǎn)換：
Mike is the most intelligent in his class.
Mike is more intelligent than any other students in his class.
4) "否定詞語+比較級"，"否定詞語+ so… as"結(jié)構(gòu)表示最高級含義。
Nothing is so easy as this.
=Nothing is easier than this.
=This is the easiest thing.
4.13 和 more 有關(guān)的詞組
1) the more… the more…
越……就越……The harder you
work，the greater progress you'll make.
2) more B than A
與其說 A 不如說 B
less A than B
He is more lazy than slow at his work.
= He is less slow than lazy at his work.
3) no more… than… 與……一樣……，不比……多
The officials could see no more than the Emperor.
no less… than… 與……一樣……
He is no less diligent than you.
4) more than 不只是，非常
She is more than kind to us all.
典型例題
1)The weather in China is different from____.
A. in America
B. one in America
C. America
D. that in America
答案：D. 本題意為"中國的天氣比美國熱。"比較的是天氣而不是國家，C 不能選。A 沒有名詞，后句成分不全，排除。B 和 D 中，B 中的 one 常用來代替可數(shù)名詞，而 that 可車以代替不可數(shù)或抽象名詞，所以選 D。
2)After the new technique was introduced，the factory produced ___ tractors in 1988 as the
year before.
A. as twice many
B. as many twice
C. twice as many
D. twice many as
答案 C. 此句意為"這個(gè)廠 1988 能生產(chǎn)的拖拉機(jī)是往年的兩倍"。
表示倍數(shù)用"倍數(shù)+ as + 形容詞原形+ as +比較對象"的句型。所以此句答案為 C。
This ruler is three times as long as that one.
5.動詞
1)表示動作中狀態(tài)的詞叫做動詞。
2)根據(jù)其在句中的功能，動詞可分為四類，分別是：實(shí)義動詞(Notional Verb)、系動詞(Link Verb)、
助動詞(Auxiliary Verb)、情態(tài)動詞(Modal Verb)。
說明：有些情況下，有些動詞是兼類詞，例如：
We are having a meeting. 我們正在開會。 (having 是實(shí)義動詞。)
He has gone to New York. 他已去紐約。 (has 是助動詞。)
3) 動詞根據(jù)其后是否帶有賓語，可分為兩類，分別是：及物動詞(Transitive Verb)、不及物動詞
(Intransitive Verb)，縮寫形式分別為 vt. 和 vi.。
說明：同一動詞有時(shí)可用作及物動詞，有時(shí)可用作不及物動詞。例如：
She can dance and sing. 她能唱歌又能跳舞。(sing 在此用作不及物動詞。)
She can sing many English songs.她能唱好多首英文歌曲。(sing 用作及物動詞。)
4) 根據(jù)是否受主語的人稱和數(shù)的限制，可分兩類，分別是：限定動詞(Finite Verb)、非限定動詞
(Non-finite Verb)例如：
She sings very well. 她唱得很好。(sing 受主語 she 的限制，故用第三人稱單數(shù)形式 sings。)
She wants to learn English well. 她想學(xué)好英語。(to learn 不受主語 she 的限制，沒有詞形變化，是非限定動詞。
說明：英語中共有三種非限定動詞，分別是：動詞不定式(Infinitive)、動名詞(Gerund)、分詞(Participle)。
5) 根據(jù)動詞的組成形式，可分為三類，分別是：單字詞(One-Word Verb)、短語動詞(Phrasal Verb)、 動詞短語(Verbal Phrase)例如：
The English language contains many phrasal verbs and verbal phrases.
英語里有許多短語動詞和動詞短語。(contains 是單字動詞。)
Students should learn to look up new words in dictionaries.
學(xué)生們學(xué)會查字典。(look up 是短語動詞。)
The young ought to take care of the old.
年輕人應(yīng)照料老人。(take care of 是動詞短語。)
6)動詞有五種形態(tài)，分別是：原形(Original Form)、第三人稱單數(shù)形式(Singular From in Third
Personal)、過去式(Past Form)、過去分詞(Past Participle)、現(xiàn)在分詞(Present Participle)。
5.1 系動詞
系動詞亦稱聯(lián)系動詞(Link Verb)，作為系動詞，它本身有詞義，但不能單獨(dú)用作謂語，后邊必須跟表語 (亦稱補(bǔ)語)，構(gòu)成系表結(jié)構(gòu)說明主語的狀況、性質(zhì)、特征等情況。
說明： 有些系動詞又是實(shí)義動詞，該動詞表達(dá)實(shí)義時(shí)，有詞義，可單獨(dú)作謂語，例如：
He fell ill yesterday.
他昨天病了。(fell 是系動詞，后跟補(bǔ)足語，說明主語情況。)
He fell off the ladder.
他從梯子上摔下來。fell 是實(shí)義動詞，單獨(dú)作謂語。
1)狀態(tài)系動詞
用來表示主語狀態(tài)，只有 be 一詞，例如：
He is a teacher. 他是一名教師。(is 與補(bǔ)足語一起說明主語的身份。)
2)持續(xù)系動詞
用來表示主語繼續(xù)或保持一種狀況或態(tài)度，主要有 keep, rest, remain, stay, lie, stand, 例如：
He always kept silent at meeting.
他開會時(shí)總保持沉默。
This matter rests a mystery.
此事仍是一個(gè)謎。3)表像系動詞
用來表示"看起來像"這一概念，主要有 seem, appear, look, 例如：
He looks tired. 他看起來很累。
He seems (to be) very sad. 他看起來很傷心。
4)感官系動詞
感官系動詞主要有 feel, smell, sound, taste, 例如：
This kind of cloth feels very soft.
這種布手感很軟。
This flower smells very sweet.
這朵花聞起來很香。
5)變化系動詞
這些系動詞表示主語變成什么樣，變化系動詞主要有 become, grow, turn, fall, get, go, come, run.
例如：
He became mad after that.
自那之后，他瘋了。
She grew rich within a short time.
她沒多長時(shí)間就富了。
6)終止系動詞
表示主語已終止動作，主要有 prove, trun out, 表達(dá)"證實(shí)"，"變成"之意，例如：
The rumor proved false. 這謠言證實(shí)有假。
The search proved difficult. 搜查證實(shí)很難。
His plan turned out a success.
他的計(jì)劃終于成功了。(turn out 表終止性結(jié)果)
5.2 什么是助動詞
1)協(xié)助主要動詞構(gòu)成謂語動詞詞組的詞叫助動詞(Auxiliary Verb)。被協(xié)助的動詞稱作主要動詞(Main Verb)。
助動詞自身沒有詞義，不可單獨(dú)使用，例如：
He doesn't like English. 他不喜歡英語。
(doesn't 是助動詞，無詞義;like 是主要動詞，有詞義)
2) 助動詞協(xié)助主要動詞完成以下功用，可以用來：
a. 表示時(shí)態(tài)，例如：
He is singing. 他在唱歌。
He has got married. 他已結(jié)婚。
b. 表示語態(tài)，例如：
He was sent to England.
他被派往英國。
c. 構(gòu)成疑問句，例如：
Do you like college life?
你喜歡大學(xué)生活嗎?
Did you study English before you came here?
你來這兒之前學(xué)過英語嗎?
d. 與否定副詞 not 合用，構(gòu)成否定句，例如：
I don't like him.
我不喜歡他。
e. 加強(qiáng)語氣，例如：
Do come to the party tomorrow evening. 明天晚上一定來參加晚會。
He did know that.
他的確知道那件事。
3) 最常用的助動詞有：be, have, do, shall, will, should, would
5.3 助動詞 be 的用法
1) be +現(xiàn)在分詞，構(gòu)成進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)，例如：
They are having a meeting. 他們正在開會。
English is becoming more and more important. 英語現(xiàn)在越來越重要。
2) be + 過去分詞，構(gòu)成被動語態(tài)，例如：
The window was broken by Tom.. 窗戶是湯姆打碎的。
English is taught throughout the world. 世界各地都教英語。
3) be + 動詞不定式，可表示下列內(nèi)容：
a. 表示最近、未來的計(jì)劃或安排，例如：
He is to go to New York next week.. 他下周要去紐約。
We are to teach the freshpersons. 我們要教新生。
說明： 這種用法也可以說成是一種將來時(shí)態(tài)表達(dá)法。
b. 表示命令，例如：
You are to explain this. 對此你要做出解釋。
He is to come to the office this afternoon. 要他今天下午來辦公室。
c. 征求意見，例如：
How am I to answer him?
我該怎樣答復(fù)他?
Who is to go there?
誰該去那兒呢?
d. 表示相約、商定，例如：
We are to meet at the school gate at seven
tomorrow morning. 我們明天早晨 7 點(diǎn)在校門 口集合。
5.4 助動詞 have 的用法
1)have +過去分詞，構(gòu)成完成時(shí)態(tài)，例如：
He has left for London. 他已去了倫敦。
By the end of last month, they had finished half of their work.
上月未為止，他們已經(jīng)完成工作的一半。
2)have + been +現(xiàn)在分詞，構(gòu)成完成進(jìn)行時(shí)，例如：
I have been studying English for ten years.
我一直在學(xué)英語，已達(dá)十年之久。
3)have+been
+過去分詞，構(gòu)成完成式被動語態(tài)，例如：
English has been taught in China for many years.
中國教英語已經(jīng)多年。
5.5 助動詞 do 的用法
1) 構(gòu)成一般疑問句，例如：
Do you want to pass the CET? 你想通過大學(xué)英語測試嗎?
Did you study German? 你們學(xué)過德語嗎?
2) do + not 構(gòu)成否定句，例如：
I do not want to be criticized. 我不想挨批評。
He doesn't like to study. 他不想學(xué)習(xí)。
In the past, many students did not know the importance of English. 過去，好多學(xué)生不知道 英語的重要性。
3) 構(gòu)成否定祈使句，例如：
Don't go there. 不要去那里。
Don't be so absent-minded. 不要這么心不在焉。
說明： 構(gòu)成否定祈使句只用 do，不用 did 和 does。
4) 放在動詞原形前，加強(qiáng)該動詞的語氣，例如：
Do come to my birthday party. 一定來參加我的生日宴會。
I did go there. 我確實(shí)去那兒了。
I do miss you. 我確實(shí)想你。
5) 用于倒裝句，例如：
Never did I hear of such a thing. 我從未聽說過這樣的事情。
Only when we begin our college life do we realize the importance of English. 只有在開始大學(xué)生活時(shí)我們才認(rèn)識到英語的重要性。
說明： 引導(dǎo)此類倒裝句的副詞有 never, seldom, rarely, little, only, so, well 等。
6) 用作代動詞，例如：
---- Do you like Beijing? --你喜歡北京嗎?
---- Yes, I do. --是的，喜歡。(do 用作代動詞，代替 like Beijing.)
He knows how to drive a car, doesn't he?
他知道如何開車，對吧?
5.6 助動詞 shall 和 will 的用法
shall 和 will 作為助動詞可以與動詞原形一起構(gòu)成一般將來時(shí)，例如：
I shall study harder at English.
我將更加努力地學(xué)習(xí)英語。
He will go to Shanghai.
他要去上海。
說明：
在過去的語法中，語法學(xué)家說 shall 用于第一人稱，will 只用于第二、第三人稱?，F(xiàn)在，尤其是在口語中，will 常用于第一人稱，但 shall 只用于第一人稱，如用于第二、第三人稱，就失去助動詞的意義，已變?yōu)榍閼B(tài)動詞，試比較:
He shall come. 他必須來。(shall 有命令的意味。)
He will come. 他要來。(will 只與動詞原形構(gòu)成一般將來時(shí)。)
5.7 助動詞 should 和 would 的用法
1)should 無詞義，只是 shall 的過去形式，與動詞原形構(gòu)成過去將來時(shí)，只用于第一人稱，例如：
I telephoned him yesterday to ask what I should do next week.
我昨天給他打電話，問他我下周干什么。
比較：
"What shall I do next week?" I asked."我下周干什么?"我問道。(可以說，shall 變成間接引語時(shí)，變成了 should。)
2) would 也無詞義，是 will 的過去形式，與動詞原形構(gòu)成過去將來時(shí)，用于第二、第三人稱，例如：
He said he would come.
他說他要來。
比較：
"I will go," he said. 他說："我要去那兒。"
變成間接引語，就成了：
He said he would come.
原來的 will 變成 would，go 變成了 come.。
5.8 短語動詞
動詞加小品構(gòu)成的起動詞作用的短語叫短語動詞(Phrasal Verb)。例如：
Turn off the radio. 把收音機(jī)關(guān)上。(turn off 是短語動詞)
短語動詞的構(gòu)成基本有下列幾種：
1) 動詞+副詞，如：black out;
2) 動詞+介詞，如：look into;
3) 動詞+副詞+介詞，如：look forward to。構(gòu)成短語動詞的副詞和介詞都統(tǒng)稱為小品詞(Particle)。
5.9 非謂語動詞
在句子中充當(dāng)除謂語以外的句子成分的動詞形式叫做非謂語動詞。非謂語動詞分為三種形式:不定式，動名詞，和分詞(分詞包括現(xiàn)在分詞和過去分詞)。
否定形式：
not +不定式， not + 動名詞， not + 現(xiàn)在分詞
6.動名詞
6.1 動名詞作主語、賓語和表語
1)作主語
Fighting broke out between the South and the North.
南方與北方開戰(zhàn)了。
2)作賓語a. 動詞后加動名詞 doing 作賓語 V. + doing sth
admit 承認(rèn)
appreciate 感激,贊賞
avoid 避免
complete 完 成
consider 認(rèn) 為
delay 耽 誤
deny 否 認(rèn)
detest 討 厭
endure 忍受
enjoy 喜歡
escape 逃脫
prevent 阻止
fancy 想 象
finish 完 成
imagine 想 象
mind 介 意
miss 想 念
postpone 推 遲
practise 訓(xùn) 練
recall 回 憶
resent 討 厭
resist 抵抗
resume 繼續(xù)
risk 冒險(xiǎn)
suggest 建議
face 面對
include 包括
stand 忍受
understand 理解
forgive 寬恕
keep 繼續(xù)
舉例：
(1)
Would you mind turning down your radio a little, please?
(2) The squirrel was lucky that it just missed being caught.
b. 詞組后接 doing
admit to
prefer…to
be used to
lead to
devote oneself to
object to
stick to
be busy
look forward to (to 為介詞)
no good,
no use,
It's worth…,
as well as,
can't help,
It's no use /good
be tired of
be fond of
be capable of
be afraid of
be proud of
think of / about
hold off
put off
keep on
insist on
count on / upon
set about
be successful in
good at
take up
give up
burst out
prevent … from…
3)作表語
Her job is washing，cleaning and taking care of the children.
6.2Worth 的用法
worth，worthy，worth-while 都為 adj.
意為"值得"。
1. worth：
be worth +
n. 當(dāng)名詞為金錢時(shí)，表示"…… 值得……"
be worth doing sth. "……某事值得被做"
The question is not worth discussing again and again.
2. worthy：be worthy of +n. 當(dāng)名詞為抽象名詞時(shí)表示"……值得……"
be worthy to be done "某事值得被做"
The question is not worthy to be discussed againand again.
3. worth-while：
be worth-while to do sth "值得做某事"
worth while：
It is worth while doing sth
It is worth while sb to do sth.
典型例題
It is not ____ to discuss the question again and again.
A.worth
B.worthy
C.worth-while
D.worth while
答案 C. 由 worth 的用法可知，此句只適合詞組 be
worth-while to do sth.。因此選 C。
7 動詞不定式
7.1 不定式作賓語
1) 動詞+ 不定式
afford
aim
appear
agree
arrange
ask
be
decide bother
care
choose
come
dare
demand desire
determine
expect
elect
endeavor
hope
fail
happen
help
hesitate learn
long
mean
manage
offer
ought
plan
prepare
pretend
promise
refuse
seem
tend
wait
wish
undertake
舉例：
The driver failed to see the other car in time.
司機(jī)沒能及時(shí)看見另一輛車。
I happen to know the answer to your question.
我碰巧知道你那道問題的答案。
2)動詞+不定式 ;
動詞+賓語+不定式
ask, beg, choose, expect , hate, help intend like, love, need prefer, prepare, promise, want, wish…
I like to keep everything tidy. 我喜歡每件東西都保持整潔。
I like you to keep everything tidy. 我喜歡你年使每件東西都保持整潔。
I want to speak to Tom. 我想和湯姆談話。
I want you to speak to Tom. 我想讓你和湯姆談話。
3) 動詞+疑問詞+ to
decide, know, consider forget, learn, remember, show, understand, see, wonder, hear, find
out, explain, tell
Please show us how to do that. 請演示給我們?nèi)绾稳プ觥?/p>
There are so many kinds of tape-recorders on sale that I can't make up my mind which to buy.有這么多的錄音機(jī)，我都拿不定主意買哪一種。
注意:疑問詞帶不定式在句中作成分時(shí)，謂語動詞用單數(shù)。
The question is how to put it into practice.
問題是怎樣把它付諸實(shí)施。
7.2 不定式作補(bǔ)語
1) 動詞+賓語+不定式(to do)
advise
allow
appoint
believe
cause
challenge
command
compel
consider
declare
drive
enable
encourage
find
forbid
force
guess
hire
imagine
impel
induce
inform
instruct
invite
judge
know
like
order
permit
persuade
remind
report
request
require
select
send
state
suppose
tell
think
train
trust
understand
urge
warn
例句：
a. Father will not allow us to play on the street.父親不讓我們在街上玩耍。
b. We believe him to be guilty. 我們相信他是有罪的。
Find 的特殊用法：
Find 后可用分詞做賓補(bǔ)，或先加形式賓語，再加形容詞，最后加帶 to 的動詞不定式。find 后也可帶
一個(gè)從句。此類動詞還有 get，have。
I found him lying on the ground.
I found it important to learn.
I found that to learn English is important.
典型例題:
The next morning she found the man ___ in bed，dead.
A. lying
B. lie
C. lay
D. laying
答案：A.find 的賓語后面，用分詞或分詞短語，起賓語補(bǔ)足語作用。現(xiàn)在分詞表達(dá)主動，也表達(dá)正在進(jìn)行， 過去分詞表達(dá)被動。
2) to + be 的不定式結(jié)構(gòu)，作補(bǔ)語的動詞。
Acknowledge,
believe,
consider,
think, declare(聲稱),
discover, fancy(設(shè)想), feel
find, guess,
judge,
imagine,
know,
prove,
see( 理 解 ), show,
suppose,
take(以為),
understand
We consider Tom to be one of the best students in our class.
我們認(rèn)為湯姆是班上最好的學(xué)生之一。
典型例題
Charles Babbage is generally considered ___ the first computer.
A. to invent
B. inventing
C. to have invented
D. having invented
答案：A. 由 consider to do sth. 排除 B、D。. 此句只說明發(fā)明這一個(gè)事實(shí)，不定式后用原形即可。而
C 為現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)，發(fā)明為點(diǎn)動詞一般不用完成時(shí)，且此處也不強(qiáng)調(diào)對現(xiàn)在的影響，因此不選 C。
3) to be +形容詞
Seem,
appear,
be said,
be supposed,
be believed,
be thought,
be known,
be reported,
hope,
wish,
desire,
want,
plan,
expect,
mean…
The book is believed to be uninteresting. 人們認(rèn)為這本書沒什么意思。
4) there be+不定式
believe, expect, intend, like, love, mean, prefer, want, wish, undrstand
We didn't expect there to be so many people there.我們沒料到會有那么多人在哪里。
注意 ： 有些動詞需用 as 短語做補(bǔ)語，如 regard, think believe, take, consider.
We regard Tom as our best teacher. 我們認(rèn)為湯姆是我們最好的老師。
Mary took him as her father . 瑪麗把他當(dāng)作自己的父親。7.3 不定式主語
1) It's easy (for me) to do that.我做這事太容易了
easy,
difficult,
hard,
important,
possible,
impossible,
comfortable,
necessary,
better;
the first,
the next,
the last,
the best,
too much,
too little,
not enough
It's so nice to hear your voice.
聽到你的聲音真高興。
It's necessary for you to lock the car when you do not use it.
當(dāng)你不用車的時(shí)候，鎖車是有必要的。
2) It's very kind of you to help us. 他幫助我們，他真好。
Kind,
nice,
stupid,
rude,
clever,
foolish,
thoughtful,
thoughtless,
brave,
considerate(考慮周到的),
silly,
selfish(自私的)
例句:
It was silly of us to believe
him. 我們真愚蠢，竟然相信了他。
It seemed selfish of him not to give them anything. 他不給他們?nèi)魏螙|西，這顯得太自私
了。
注意：1) 其他系動詞如，look，appear 等也可用于此句型
2) 不定式作為句子成分時(shí)，動詞用單數(shù)形式。
3) 當(dāng)不定式作主語的句子中又有一個(gè)不定式作表語時(shí)，不能用 It is… to…的句型
(對)To see is to believe. 百聞不如一見。
(錯(cuò))It is to believe to see.
7.4It's for sb.和 It's of sb.
1)for sb.
常用于表示事物的特征特點(diǎn)，表示客觀形式的形容詞，如 easy, hard, difficult,
interesting, impossible 等：
It's very hard for him to study two languages. 對他來說學(xué)兩門外語是很難的。
2)of sb 的句型一般用表示人物的性格，品德，表示主觀感情或態(tài)度的形容詞，如 good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。
It's very nice of you to help me. 你來幫助我，你真是太好了。
for 與 of 的辨別方法：
用介詞后面的代詞作主語，用介詞前邊的形容詞作表語，造個(gè)句子。如果道理上通順用 of，不通則用 for。如：
You are nice. (通順，所以應(yīng)用 of)。
7.5 不定式作表語
不定式可放在 be 動詞后面，形成表語。例如：
My work is to clean the room every day.
His dream is to be a doctor.
7.6 不定式作定語
不定式做定語通常要放在被修飾的詞后。例如：
I have a lot of work to do.
So he made some candles to give light.7.7 不定式作狀語
1)目的狀語
To… only to (僅僅為了),
in order to, so as
to, so(such)… as to… (如此……以便……)
He ran so fast as to catch the first bus.
他飛快地跑以便趕上第一班車。
I come here only to say good-bye to you. 我來僅僅是向你告別。
2)作結(jié)果狀語，表事先沒有預(yù)料到的，要放在句子后面。
What have I said to make you angry.
He searched the room only to find nothing.
3) 表原因
I'm glad to see you.
典型例題
The chair looks rather hard, but in fact it is very comfortable to ___.
A. sit
B. sit on
C. be seat
D. be sat on
答案：B.
如果不定式為不及物動詞，其后應(yīng)有必要的介詞。當(dāng)動詞與介詞連用時(shí)，常位于"形容詞+動詞
不定式"結(jié)構(gòu)的末尾。
7.8 用作介詞的 to
to 有兩種用法： 一為不定式+動詞原形; 一為介詞+名詞/動名詞, to 在下面的用法中是第二種，即 to+ 名詞/動名詞：
admit to 承認(rèn)，
confess to 承認(rèn)，
be accustomed to 習(xí)慣于，
be used to 習(xí)慣于， stick to 堅(jiān)持，
turn to 開始，著手于， devote oneself to 獻(xiàn)身于，
be devoted to 致力于， look forward to 盼望，
pay attention to 注意
7.9 省 to 的動詞不定式
1) 情態(tài)動詞
( 除 ought 外，ought to)：
2) 使役動詞
let, have, make：
3) 感官動詞
see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作賓補(bǔ)，
省略 to。
注意：在被動語態(tài)中則 to 不能省掉。
I saw him dance.
=He was seen to dance.
The boss made them work the whole night.
=They were made to work the whole night.
4) would rather，had better：
5) Why… / why not…：
6) help 可帶 to，也可不帶 to, help sb (to) do sth：
7) but 和 except：but 前是動詞 do 時(shí)，后面出現(xiàn)的動詞用不帶 to 的動詞不定式。
8) 由 and, or 和 than 連接的兩個(gè)不定式，第二個(gè) to 可以省去：
9) 通常在 discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand 等詞后，可以省去 to be：
He is supposed (to be) nice. 他應(yīng)該是個(gè)好人。舉例：
He wants to move to France and marry the girl.
He wants to do nothing but go out.
比較：
He wants to do nothing but go out.
He wants to believe anything but to take the medicine.
典型例題
1) ---- I usually go there by train.
---- Why not ___ by boat for a change?
A. to try going
B. trying to go
C. to try and go
D. try going
答案：D.
why not 后面接不帶 to 的不定式，因此選 D。
2) Paul doesn't have to be made ___.
He always works hard.
A. learn
B. to learn
C. learned
D. learning
答案：B.
make 后接不帶 to 的動詞不定式，當(dāng)其用于被動時(shí)，to 不可省略。
7.10 動詞不定式的否定式
Tell him not to shut the window…
She pretended not to see me when
I passed by. 我走過的時(shí)候，她假裝沒看見。
7.11 不定式的特殊句型 too…to…
1)too…to 太…以至于…
He is too excited to speak.
他太激動了，說不出話來。
---- Can I help you ? 需要我?guī)兔?
---- Well, I'm afraid the box is too heavy for you to carry it, but thank you all the same.
不用了。這箱子太重，恐怕你搬不動。謝謝您。
2) 如在 too 前有否定詞，則整個(gè)句子用否定詞表達(dá)肯定， too 后那個(gè)詞表達(dá)一種委婉含義，意 為"不太 "。
It's never too late to mend. (諺語)
改過不嫌晚。
3) 當(dāng) too 前面有 only, all, but 時(shí)，意思是：非常… 等于 very。
I'm only too pleased to be able to help you. 我非常高興能幫助你。
He was but too eager to get home. 他非常想回家。
7.12 不定式的特殊句型 so as to
1) 表示目的;它的否定式是 so as not to do。
Tom kept quiet about the accident so as not to lose his job.
湯姆對事故保持沉默是為了不丟掉他的工作。
Go in quietly so as not to wake the baby.
輕點(diǎn)進(jìn)去，別驚醒了嬰兒。
2) so kind as to ---勞駕
Would you be so kind as to tell me the time? 勞駕，現(xiàn)在幾點(diǎn)了。
7.13 不定式的特殊句型 Why not
"Why not +動詞原形"表達(dá)向某人提出建議，翻譯為："為什么不……?" "干嗎不……?"
例如：
Why not take a holiday?
干嗎不去度假?
7.14 不定式的時(shí)態(tài)和語態(tài)
1) 現(xiàn)在時(shí)：一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)表示的動詞，有時(shí)與謂語動詞表示的動作同時(shí)發(fā)生，有時(shí)發(fā)生在謂語動詞的動作之后。
He seems to know this.I hope to see you again. = I hope that I'll see you again. 我希望再見到你。
2) 完成時(shí)：表示的動作發(fā)生在謂語動詞表示的動作之前。
I'm sorry to have given you so much trouble.
He seems to have caught a cold.
3) 進(jìn)行時(shí)：
表示動作正在進(jìn)行，與謂語動詞表示的動作同時(shí)發(fā)生。
He seems to be eating something.
4) 完成進(jìn)行時(shí)：
She is known to have been wreaking on the problem for many years.7.15 動名詞與不定式
8.特殊詞精講
8.1stop doing/to do stop to do
停止，中斷做某事后去做另一件事。
stop doing 停止做某事。
They stop to smoke a cigarette.
他們停下來，抽了根煙。
I must stop smoking.
我必須戒煙了。
8.2forget doing/to do
forget to do 忘記要去做某事。 (未做)
forget doing 忘記做過某事。 (已做)
The light in the office is still on. He forgot to turn it off.
辦公室的燈還在亮著，它忘記關(guān)了。(沒有做關(guān)燈的動作)
He forgot turning the light off.
他忘記他已經(jīng)關(guān)了燈了。 ( 已做過關(guān)燈的動作)
Don't forget to come tomorrow.
別忘了明天來。 (to come 動作未做)
8.3remember doing/to do
remember to do 記得去做某事 (未做)
remember doing 記得做過某事 (已做)
Remember to go to the post office after school.記著放學(xué)后去趟郵局。
Don't you remember seeing the man before?
你不記得以前見過那個(gè)人嗎?
8.4regret doing/to do
regret to do 對要做的事遺憾。 (未做)
regret doing 對做過的事遺憾、后悔。 (已做)
I regret to have to do this, but I have no choice.
我很遺憾必須這樣去做，我實(shí)在沒有辦法。
I don't regret telling her what I thought.
我不為告訴她我的想法而后悔。
8.5cease doing/to do
cease to do 長時(shí)間，甚至永遠(yuǎn)停做某事。
cease doing 短時(shí)停止做某事，以后還會接著做。
That department has ceased to exist forever.
那個(gè)部門已不復(fù)存在。
The girls ceased chatting for a moment when their teacher passed by.
姑娘們在老師走過時(shí)，停了會聊天。
8.6try doing/to do try to do 努力，企圖做某事。
try doing 試驗(yàn)，試著做某事。
You must try to be more careful.
你可要多加小心。
I tried gardening but didn't succeed.
我試著種果木花卉，但未成功。
8.7go on doing/to do
go on to do 做了一件事后，接著做另一件事。
go on doing 繼續(xù)做原來做的事。
After he had finished his maths，he went on to do his physics.
做完數(shù)學(xué)后，他接著去做物理。
Go on doing the other exercise after you have finished this one.
作完這個(gè)練習(xí)后，接著做其他的練習(xí)
8.8be afraid doing/to do
be afraid to do 不敢，膽怯去做某事，是主觀上的原因不去做，意為"怕";
be afraid of doing 擔(dān)心出現(xiàn) doing 的狀況、結(jié)果。 doing 是客觀上造成的，意為"生怕，恐怕"。She was afraid to step further in grass because she was afraid of being bitten by a snake.
她生怕被蛇咬著，而不敢在草叢中再走一步。
She was afraid to wake her husband.
她不敢去叫醒她丈夫。
She was afraid of waking her husband.
她生怕吵醒她丈夫。
8.9be interested doing/to
do interested to do 對做某事感興趣，想了解某事。
interested in doing 對某種想法感興趣，doing 通常為想法。
I shall be interested to
know what happens.
我很想知道發(fā)生了什么事。 (想了解)
I'm interested in working in Switzerland. Do you have any idea about that?
我對在瑞士工作感興趣。你想過這事嗎?
(一種想法)
8.10mean to doing/to do
mean to do 打算、想
mean doing 意味著
I mean to go, but my father would not allow me to.
我想去，但是我父親不肯讓我去。
To raise wage means increasing purchasing power.
贈加工資意味著增加購買力。
8.11begin (start)doing/to do
begin / start to do sth
begin / start doing sth.
1) 談及一項(xiàng)長期活動或開始一種習(xí)慣時(shí)，使用 doing.
How old were you when you first started playing the piano?
你幾歲時(shí)開始彈鋼琴?
2) begin, start 用進(jìn)行時(shí)時(shí)，后面動詞用不定式 to do
I was beginning to get angry。
我開始生起氣來。
3) 在 attempt, intend, begin, start 后接 know,
understand, realize 這類動詞時(shí)，常用不定式 to do。
I begin to understand the truth。
我開始明白真相。
4) 物作主語時(shí)
It began to melt.
8.12 感官動詞 + doing/to do
感官動詞 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do
表示動作的完整性，真實(shí)性;+doing 表示動作的連續(xù)性，進(jìn)行性
I saw him work in the garden yesterday.
昨天我看見他在花園里干活了。(強(qiáng)調(diào)"我看見了"這個(gè)事實(shí))
I saw him working in the garden yesterday.(強(qiáng)調(diào)"我見他正干活"這個(gè)動作)昨天我見他正在花園里干活。
9.分詞
9.1 分詞作定語
分詞前置
We can see the rising sun. 我們可以看到東升的旭日
He is a retired worker.
他是位退休的工人
分詞后置
(i.分詞詞組;ii. 個(gè)別分詞如 given, left; iii. 修飾不定代詞 something 等)
There was a girl sitting there.
有個(gè)女孩坐在那里
This is the question given.
這是所給的問題
There is nothing interesting.
沒有有趣的東西
過去分詞作定語 與其修飾的詞是被動關(guān)系，相當(dāng)于一個(gè)被動語態(tài)的定語從句。
Most of the people invited to the party were famous scientists.
Most of the artists invited to the party were from South Africa.
9.2 分詞作狀語
As I didn't receive any letter from him,
I gave him a call.
-> Not receiving any letter from him, I gave him a call.
由于沒有收到他的信，我給他打了電話。
If more attention was given, the trees could have grown better.-> Given more attention，the trees could have grown better.
假如多給些照顧，那些樹會長得更好。
9.3 連詞+分詞(短語)
有時(shí)為使分詞短語與主句關(guān)系更清楚，可在分詞前加連詞。 連詞有： when，while，if though，after, before, as. 但分詞的主語和主句的主語必須為同一個(gè)，如：
While waiting there, he saw two pretty girls come out of the building.
waiting 和 saw 的主語相同。
9.4 分詞作補(bǔ)語
通常在感官動詞和使役動詞之后，如：
I found my car missing. 我發(fā)現(xiàn)我的車不見了。
I'll have my watch repaired. 我想把我的手表修一下。
9.5 分詞作表語
現(xiàn)在分詞： 表示主動，正在進(jìn)行
過去分詞： 表示被動，已經(jīng)完成
She looked tired with cooking. 她由于忙著做飯，看上去有些疲倦。
He remained standing beside the table. 他依然站在桌旁。
9.6 分詞作插入語
其結(jié)構(gòu)是固定的，意思上的主語并不是句子的主語。
generally speaking 一般說來
talking of (speaking of) 說道
strictly speaking 嚴(yán)格的說
judging from 從…判斷
all things considered 從整體來看
taking all things into consideration 全面看來
Judging from his face, he must be ill. 從他的臉色看，他一定是病了。
Generally speaking, dogs can run faster than pigs. 總的來說，狗比豬跑得快。 (speaking 并不是 dogs 的動作)
9.7 分詞的時(shí)態(tài)
1)與主語動詞同時(shí)，
Hearing the news, he jumped with joy.
聽到這一消息，他高興得手舞足蹈。
Arriving there, they found the boy dead.
剛一到那兒，他們就發(fā)現(xiàn)那男孩死了。
9.8 分詞的語態(tài)
1)通常，現(xiàn)在分詞表示主動，過去分詞表示被動，例如：
He is the man giving you the money. (= who gave you…)
他就是給你錢的那個(gè)人。
He is the man stopped by the car.
( = who was stopped by…)
他就是那個(gè)被車攔住的人。
2)不及物動詞的過去分詞表示動作已經(jīng)發(fā)生
gone, fallen, retired, grown-up, escaped, faded, returned
例: a well-read person.
一個(gè)讀過許多書的人
a much-travelled may 一個(gè)去過許多地方的人
a burnt-out match 燒完了的火柴
10.獨(dú)立主格
10.1 獨(dú)立主格(一)： 獨(dú)立主格結(jié)構(gòu)的構(gòu)成：
名詞(代詞)+現(xiàn)在分詞、過去分詞;
名詞(代詞)+形容詞;
名詞(代詞)+副詞;
名詞(代詞)+不定式;
名詞(代詞) +介詞短語構(gòu)成。
(二) 獨(dú)立主格結(jié)構(gòu)的特點(diǎn)：
1)獨(dú)立主格結(jié)構(gòu)的邏輯主語與句子的主語不同，它獨(dú)立存在。
2)名詞或代詞與后面的分詞，形容詞，副詞，不定 式，介詞等是主謂關(guān)系。
3)獨(dú)立主格結(jié)構(gòu)一般有逗號與主句分開。
舉例：The test finished, we began our holiday. = When the test was finished, we began our holiday.
考試結(jié)束了，我們開始放假。
The president assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.
= After the president was assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.
總統(tǒng)被謀殺了，舉國上下沉浸在悲哀之中。
Weather permitting, we are going to visit you tomorrow.
如果天氣允許，我們明天去看你。
This done, we went home. 工作完成后，我們才回家。
The meeting gone over, everyone tired to go home earlier.
會議結(jié)束后，每個(gè)人都想早點(diǎn)回家。
He came into the room, his ears red with cold.
他回到了房子里，耳朵凍壞了。
He came out of the library, a large book under his arm.
他夾著本厚書，走出了圖書館
10.2With 的復(fù)合結(jié)構(gòu)
表伴隨時(shí)，既可用分詞的獨(dú)立結(jié)構(gòu)，也可用 with 的復(fù)合結(jié)構(gòu)。 with +名詞(代詞)+現(xiàn)在分詞/過去分詞/形容詞/副詞/不定式/介詞短語
1) 獨(dú)立主格結(jié)構(gòu)使用介詞的問題：
當(dāng)介詞是 in 時(shí)，其前后的兩個(gè)名詞均不加任何成分(如物主代詞或冠詞)，也不用復(fù)數(shù)。但 with 的復(fù)合結(jié)構(gòu)不受此限制
A robber burst into the room, knife in hand. ( hand 前不能加 his)。
2) 當(dāng)表人體部位的詞做邏輯主語時(shí)，及物動詞用現(xiàn)在分詞，不及物動詞用過去分詞。
He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched,his eyes looking straight up.
典型例題：
Weather___, we'll go out for a walk.
A permitted
B permitting
C permits
D for permitting
答案 B. 本題中沒有連詞，它不是復(fù)合句，也不是并列句。 句中使用了逗號，且 we 小寫，可知其不
是兩個(gè)簡單句。能夠這樣使用的只有獨(dú)立主格或 with 的復(fù)合結(jié)構(gòu)。據(jù)此判斷，本句中使用的是獨(dú)立結(jié)構(gòu)，其結(jié)構(gòu)為：名詞+分詞。 由于 permit 在這里翻譯為'天氣允許'，表主動，應(yīng)用現(xiàn)在分詞，故選 B。如果不會判斷獨(dú)立結(jié)構(gòu)作狀語的形式，不妨將句子改為條件句，例如本句改為 If weather permits, we'll go out for a walk. 然后將 if 去掉，再將謂語動詞改為非謂語動詞即可。
11.動詞的時(shí)態(tài)
11.1 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)的用法
1)經(jīng)常性或習(xí)慣性的動作，常與表示頻腮度的時(shí)間狀語連用。
時(shí)間狀語： every…, sometimes, at…, on Sunday
I leave home for school at 7 every morning.
2)客觀真理，客觀存在，科學(xué)事實(shí)。
The earth moves around the sun.
Shanghai lies in the east of China.
3) 表示格言或警句中。 Pride goes before a fall. 驕者必?cái) ?/p>
注意：此用法如果出現(xiàn)在賓語從句中，即使主句是過去時(shí)，從句謂語也要用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)。
例：Columbus proved that the earth is round..
4) 現(xiàn)在時(shí)刻的狀態(tài)、能力、性格、個(gè)性。
I don't want so much. Ann Wang writes good English but does not speak well.
比較：Now I put the sugar in the cup. I am doing my homework now.
第一句用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)，用于操作演示或指導(dǎo)說明的示范性動作，表示言行的瞬間動作。再如：Now
watch me, I switch on the current and stand back. 第二句中的 now 是進(jìn)行時(shí)的標(biāo)志，表示正在進(jìn)行的動作的客觀狀況，所以后句用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)。
11.2 一般過去時(shí)的用法1)在確定的過去時(shí)間里所發(fā)生的動作或存在的狀態(tài)。
時(shí)間狀語有：yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982 等。
Where did you go just now?
2)表示在過去一段時(shí)間內(nèi)，經(jīng)常性或習(xí)慣性的動作。
When I was a child, I often played football in the street.
Whenever the Browns went during their visit, they were given a warm welcome.
3)句型：
It is time for sb. to do sth "到……時(shí)間了" "該……了"
It is time sb. did sth. "時(shí)間已遲了" "早該……了"
It is time for you to go to bed. 你該睡覺了。
It is time you went to bed. 你早該睡覺了。
would (had) rather sb. did sth. 表示'寧愿某人做某事'
I'd rather you came tomorrow.
4) wish, wonder, think,
hope 等用過去時(shí)，作試探性的詢問、請求、建議等。
I thought you might have some. 我以為你想要一些。
比較：
一般過去時(shí)表示的動作或狀態(tài)都已成為過去，現(xiàn)已不復(fù)存在。
Christine was an invalid all her life.
(含義：她已不在人間。)
Christine has been an invalid all her life.
(含義：她現(xiàn)在還活著)
Mrs. Darby lived in Kentucky for seven years.
(含義：達(dá)比太太已不再住在肯塔基州。)
Mrs. Darby has lived in Kentucky for seven years.
( 含義：現(xiàn)在還住在肯塔基州，有可能指剛離去)
注意： 用過去時(shí)表示現(xiàn)在，表示委婉語氣。
1)動詞 want, hope, wonder, think, intend 等。
Did you want anything else?
I wondered if you could
help me.
2)情態(tài)動詞
could, would.
Could you lend me your bike?
11.3used to / be used to
used to + do："過去常常"表示過去習(xí)慣性的動作或狀態(tài)，但如今已不存在。
Mother used not to be so forgetful.
Scarf used to take a walk.
(過去常常散步)
be used to + doing： 對……已感到習(xí)慣，或"習(xí)慣于"，to 是介詞，后需加名詞或動名詞。
He is used to a vegetarian diet.Scarf is used to taking a walk.(現(xiàn)在習(xí)慣于散步)
11.4 一般將來時(shí)
1)
shall 用于第一人稱，常被 will 所代替。
will 在陳述句中用于各人稱，在爭求意見時(shí)常用于第二人稱。
Which paragraph shall I read first.
Will you be at home at seven this evening?
2) be going to +不定式，表示將來。
a. 主語的意圖，即將做某事。
What are you going to do tomorrow?
b. 計(jì)劃，安排要發(fā)生的事。
The play is going to be produced next month。
c. 有跡象要發(fā)生的事
Look at the dark clouds, there is going to be a storm.
3) be +不定式表將來，按計(jì)劃或正式安排將發(fā)生的事。
We are to discuss the report next Saturday.
4) be about to +不定式，意為馬上做某事。
He is about to leave for Beijing.
注意：be about to 不能與 tomorrow, next week 等表示明確將來時(shí)的時(shí)間狀語連用。
11.5be going to / will 用于條件句時(shí)，
be going to 表將來
will 表意愿
If you are going to make a journey, you'd better get ready for it as soon as possible.
Now if you will take off your clothes, we will fit the new clothes on you in front of the mirror.
11.6be to 和 be going to
be to 表示客觀安排或受人指示而做某事。
be going to 表示主觀的打算或計(jì)劃。
I am to play football tomorrow afternoon. (客觀安排)
I'm going to play football tomorrow afternoon. (主觀安排)
11.7 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)表將來
1)下列動詞：come, go, arrive, leave, start, begin, return 的一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)表將來。這主要用來表示
在時(shí)間上已確定或安排好的事情。
The train leaves at six tomorrow morning.
When does the bus star? It stars in ten minutes.
2)倒裝句，表示動作正在進(jìn)行，如：
Here comes the bus. = The bus is coming.
There goes the bell. = The bell is ringing.
3)在時(shí)間或條件句中。
When Bill comes (不是 will come), ask him to wait for me.
I'll write to you as soon as I arrive there.
4)在動詞 hope, take care that, make sure that 等后。
I hope they have a nice time next week.
Make sure that the windows are closed before you leave the room.
11.8 用現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)表示將來
意為："意圖"、"打算"、"安排"、常用于人。常用詞為 come, go, start, arrive, leave, stay 等。
I'm leaving tomorrow.
Are you staying here till next week?
11.9 現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)
現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)用來表示之前已發(fā)生或完成的動作或狀 態(tài)，其結(jié)果的確和現(xiàn)在有聯(lián)系。動作或狀態(tài)發(fā)生在過去但它的影響現(xiàn)在還存在;也可表示持續(xù)到現(xiàn)在的動作或 狀態(tài)。其構(gòu)成： have (has) +過去分詞。
11.10 比較過去時(shí)與現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)
1)過去時(shí)表示過去某時(shí)發(fā)生的動作或單純敘述過去的事情，強(qiáng)調(diào)動作;現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)為過去發(fā)生的，強(qiáng)調(diào)過去的事情對現(xiàn)在的影響，強(qiáng)調(diào)的是影響。
2)過去時(shí)常與具體的時(shí)間狀語連用，而現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)通常與模糊的時(shí)間狀語連用，或無時(shí)間狀語。
一般過去時(shí)的時(shí)間狀語: yesterday, last week，…ago, in1980, in October, just now, 具體的時(shí)間狀語
共同的時(shí)間狀語:
this morning, tonight,this April, now, once，before, already, recently，lately
現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)的時(shí)間狀語
for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till / until, up to now, in past years, always,
不確定的時(shí)間狀語
3)現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)可表示持續(xù)到現(xiàn)在的動作或狀態(tài)，動詞一般是延續(xù)性的，如 live, teach, learn, work, study, know.
過去時(shí)常用的非持續(xù)性動詞有 come, go, leave, start, die, finish, become, get married 等。
舉例：
I saw this film yesterday. (強(qiáng)調(diào)看的動作發(fā)生過了。)
I have seen this film. (強(qiáng)調(diào)對現(xiàn)在的影響，電影的內(nèi)容已經(jīng)知道了。)
Why did you get up so early?(強(qiáng)調(diào)起床的動作已發(fā)生過了。)
Who hasn't handed in his paper? (強(qiáng)調(diào)有卷子，可能為不公平競爭。)
She has returned from Paris. 她已從巴黎回來了。
She returned yesterday. 她是昨天回來了。
He has been in the League for three years. (在團(tuán)內(nèi)的狀態(tài)可延續(xù))
He has been a League member for three years. (是團(tuán)員的狀態(tài)可持續(xù))
He joined the League three years ago. ( 三年前入團(tuán)，joined 為短暫行為。)
I have finished my homework now.
---Will somebody go and get Dr. White?
---He's already been sent for.
句子中如有過去時(shí)的時(shí)間副詞(如 yesterday, last, week, in 1960)時(shí)，不能使用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)，要 用過去時(shí)。
(錯(cuò))Tom has written a letter to his parents last night.
(對)Tom wrote a letter to his parents last night.
11.11 用于現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)的句型
1)It is the first / second time…. that…結(jié)構(gòu)中的從句部分，用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)。
It is the first time that I have visited the city.
It was the third time that the boy had been late.
2)This is the… that…結(jié)構(gòu)，that 從句要用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí).
This is the best film that I've (ever) seen.
這是我看過的最好的電影。
This is the first time (that) I've heard him sing. 這是我第一次聽他唱歌。
典型例題
(1) ---Do you know our town at all?
---No, this is the first time I ___ here.
A. was
B. have been
C. came
D. am coming
答案 B. This is the first time 后面所加從句應(yīng)為現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)，故選 B。
(2) ---Have you ____ been to our town before?
---No, it's the first time I ___ here.
A. even, come
B. even, have come
C. ever, come
D. ever, have come
答案 D. ever 意為曾經(jīng)或無論何時(shí)，反意詞為 never，此兩詞常用于完成時(shí)。 This is the largest fish
I have ever seen. It is / was the first time +that-clause 的句型中，從句要用完成時(shí)。
注意：非延續(xù)性動詞的否定形式可以與表示延續(xù)時(shí)間的狀語連用。即動作不發(fā)生的狀態(tài)是可以持續(xù)的。
(錯(cuò))I have received his letter for a month.(對)I haven't received his letter for almost a month.
11.12 比較 since 和 for
Since 用來說明動作起始時(shí)間，for 用來說明動作延續(xù)時(shí)間長度。
I have lived here for more than twenty years.
I have lived here since I was born..
My aunt has worked in a clinic since 1949.
Some new oilfields have been opened up since 1976.
I have known Xiao Li since she was a little girl.
My brother has been in the Youth League for two years.
I have not heard from my uncle for a long time.
注意：并非有 for 作為時(shí)間狀語的句子都用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)。
I worked here for more than twenty years.
(我現(xiàn)在已不在這里工作。)
I have worked here for many years.
(現(xiàn)在我仍在這里工作。)
小竅門：
當(dāng)現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)+一段時(shí)間，這一結(jié)構(gòu)中，我們用下面的公式轉(zhuǎn)化，很容易就能排除非延續(xù)
動詞在完成時(shí)中的誤使。
1) (對) Tom has studied Russian for three years.
= Tom began to study Russian three years ago, and is still studying it now.
2) (錯(cuò)) Harry has got married for six years.
= Harry began to get married six years ago, and is still getting married now.
顯然，第二句不對
11.13since 的四種用法
1) since +過去一個(gè)時(shí)間點(diǎn)
(如具體的年、月、日期、鐘點(diǎn)、1980, last month, half past six)。
I have been here since 1989.
2) since +一段時(shí)間+ ago
I have been here since five months ago.
3) since +從句
Great changes have taken place since you left.
Considerable time has elapsed since we have been here.
4) It is +一段時(shí)間+ since 從句
It is two years since I became a postgraduate
student.
11.14 延續(xù)動詞與瞬間動詞
1)
用于完成時(shí)的區(qū)別
延續(xù)動詞表示經(jīng)驗(yàn)、經(jīng)歷; 瞬間動詞表示行為的結(jié)
果，不能與表示段的時(shí)間狀語連用。
He has completed the work.
他已完成了那項(xiàng)工作。 (表結(jié)果)
I've known him since then.
我從那時(shí)起就認(rèn)識他了。(表經(jīng)歷)
2)
用于 till / until 從句的差異延續(xù)動詞用于肯定句，表示"做……直到……"
瞬間動詞用于否定句，表示"到……，才……"
He didn't come back until ten o'clock.
他到 10 點(diǎn)才回來。
He slept until ten o'clock.
他一直睡到 10 點(diǎn)。
11.15 過去完成時(shí)
1) 概念：表示過去的過去
2) 用法
a. 在 told, said, knew, heard, thought 等動詞后的賓語從句。
She said (that) she had never been to Paris.
b. 狀語從句
在過去不同時(shí)間發(fā)生的兩個(gè)動作中，發(fā)生在先，用過去完成時(shí);發(fā)生在后，用一般過去時(shí)。
When the police arrived, the thieves had run away.
c. 表示意向的動詞，如 hope, wish, expect, think, intend, mean, suppose 等，用過去完成時(shí)表 示"原本…，未能…"
We had hoped that you would come, but you didn't.
3) 過去完成時(shí)的時(shí)間狀語 before, by, until , when, after, once, as soon as。
He said that he had learned some English before.
By the time he was twelve, Edison had began to make a living by himself.
Tom was disappointed that most of the guests had left when he arrived at the party.
典型例題
The students ___ busily when Miss Brown
went to get a book she ___
in the office.
A. had written, left B，were writing, has left
C. had written, had left D. were writing, had
left
答案 D. "把書忘在辦公室"發(fā)生在"去取書"這一過去的動作之前，因此"忘了書"這一動作發(fā)生在過去的
過去，用過去完成時(shí)。句中 when 表示的是時(shí)間的一點(diǎn)，表示在"同學(xué)們正忙于……"這一背景下，when 所引導(dǎo)的動作發(fā)生。因此 前一句應(yīng)用過去進(jìn)行時(shí)。注意：
had no … when 還沒等…… 就……
had no sooner… than 剛…… 就……
He had no sooner bought the car than he sold it.
11.16 用一般過去時(shí)代替完成時(shí)
1)
兩個(gè)動作如按順序發(fā)生，又不強(qiáng)調(diào)先后，或用 then，and，but 等連詞時(shí)，多用一般過去時(shí)。
When she saw the mouse，she screamed.
My aunt gave me a hat and I lost it.
2 )
兩個(gè)動作相繼發(fā)生，可用一般過去時(shí);如第一個(gè)動作需要若干時(shí)間完成，用過去完成時(shí)。
When I heard the news, I was very excited.
3)
敘述歷史事實(shí)，可不用過去完成時(shí)，而只用一般過去時(shí)。
Our teacher told us
that Columbus discovered America in 1492.
11.17 將來完成時(shí)
1) 構(gòu)成 will / be going to do sth.
2) 概念
a.
狀態(tài)完成：表示某事繼續(xù)到將來某一時(shí)為止一直有的狀態(tài)。
b.
動作完成：表示將來某一時(shí)或另一個(gè)將來的動作之前，已經(jīng)完成的動作或一獲得的經(jīng)驗(yàn)。
They will have been married for 20 years by then.
You will have reached Shanghai by this time tomorrow.
11.18 現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)
現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)的基本用法：
a.
表示現(xiàn)在( 指說話人說話時(shí)) 正在發(fā)生的事情。
We are waiting for you.
b.
習(xí)慣進(jìn)行：表示長期的或重復(fù)性的動作，說話時(shí)動作未必正在進(jìn)行。
Mr. Green is writing another novel.
(說話時(shí)并未在寫，只處于寫作的狀態(tài)。)
She is learning piano under Mr. Smith.
c.
表示漸變的動詞有：get, grow, become, turn, run, go, begin 等。
The leaves are turning red.
It's getting warmer and warmer.
d.
與 always, constantly, forever
等詞連用，表示反復(fù)發(fā)生的動作或持續(xù)存在的狀態(tài)，往往帶有說 話人的主觀色彩。
You are always changing your mind.
典型例題
My dictionary ___, I have
looked for it everywhere but still___ it.
A. has lost, don't find
B. is missing, don't find C. has lost, haven't found
D. is missing, haven't found.
答案 D. 前句是一個(gè)仍在持續(xù)的狀態(tài)，應(yīng)用進(jìn)行時(shí)，由于沒有找到，其影響仍然存在，應(yīng)用完成時(shí)，瞬 間動詞用于否定式時(shí)可用于完成時(shí)。
11.19 不用進(jìn)行時(shí)的動詞
1) 事實(shí)狀態(tài)的動詞have, belong, possess, cost, owe, exist, include, contain, matter, weigh, measure,continue
I have two brothers.
This house belongs to my sister.
2) 心理狀態(tài)的動詞
Know, realize, think see, believe, suppose, imagine, agree, recognize, remember, want, need,
forget, prefer, mean, understand, love, hate
I need your help.
He loves her very much.
3 ) 瞬間動詞
accept, receive, complete, finish, give, allow, decide, refuse.
I accept your advice.
4) 系動詞
seem, remain, lie, see, hear,
11.20 過去進(jìn)行時(shí)
1) 概念：表示過去某時(shí)正在進(jìn)行的狀態(tài)或動作。
2) 過去進(jìn)行時(shí)的主要用法是描述一件事發(fā)生的背景;一個(gè)長動作發(fā)生的時(shí)候，另一個(gè)短動作發(fā)生。
3) 常用的時(shí)間狀語
this morning, the whole morning, all day yesterday, from nine to ten last evening, when, while
My brother fell while he was riding his bicycle and hurt himself.
It was raining when they left the station.
When I got to the top of the mountain, the sun was shining.
典型例題
1)
Mary ___ a dress when she cut her finger.
A. made
B. is making
C. was making
D. makes
答案 C.
割傷手指是已發(fā)生的事情，應(yīng)用過去時(shí)。同 時(shí)，when 表時(shí)間的同時(shí)性，"瑪麗在做衣服時(shí)"
提供事情發(fā)生的背景，因此用過去進(jìn)行時(shí)。
11.21 將來進(jìn)行時(shí)
1) 概念：表示將來某時(shí)進(jìn)行的狀態(tài)或動作，或按預(yù)測將來會發(fā)生的事情。
She'll be coming soon.
I'll be meeting him sometime in the future.注意：將來進(jìn)行時(shí)不用于表示"意志"，不能說 I'll be having a talk with her.
2)常用的時(shí)間狀語
Soon, tomorrow, this evening，on Sunday, by this time，tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening
By this time tomorrow, I'll be lying on the beach.
11.22 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替將來時(shí)
時(shí)間狀語從句，條件句中，從句用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替將來時(shí)
When, while, before, after, till, once, as soon as, so long as, by the time, if, in case (that), unless, even if, whether, the moment, the minute, the day, the year, immediately
He is going to visit her aunt the day he arrives in Beijing. 他一到北京，就去看他姨媽。
11.23 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替過去時(shí)
1 )"書上說"，"報(bào)紙上說"等。
The newspaper says that it's going to be cold tomorrow.
報(bào)紙上說明天會很冷的。
2) 敘述往事，使其生動。
Napoleon's army now advances and the great battle begins.
11.24 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替完成時(shí)
1) 有些動詞用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替完成時(shí)：
hear, tell, learn, write , understand, forget, know, find , say, remember.
I hear (= have heard) he will go to London.
I forget (=have forgotten) how old he is.
2) 句型 " It is … since…"代替"It has been … since …"
3) It is (= has been) five years since we last met.
11.25 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替完成時(shí)
1) 有些動詞用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替完成時(shí)：
hear, tell, learn, write , understand, forget, know, find , say, remember.
I hear (= have heard) he will go to London.
I forget (=have forgotten) how old he is.
2)
句型 " It is … since…"代替"It has been … since …"
3) It is (= has been) five years since we last met.
11.26 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)代替進(jìn)行時(shí)
1) 句型：Here comes… ; There goes…
Look, here comes Mr. Li.
11.27 現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)代替將來時(shí)
1) 表示即將發(fā)生的或預(yù)定中計(jì)劃好的活動。
Are you staying with us this weekend? 這周和我們一起度周末嗎?
We are leaving soon. 我們馬上就走。
2) 漸變動詞，如：get, run, grow, become, begin 及 die。
He is dying.
11.28 時(shí)態(tài)一致
1) 如果從句所敘述的為真理或不變的事實(shí)，則永遠(yuǎn)用現(xiàn)在時(shí)。
At that time, people did not know that the earth moves.
He told me last week that he is eighteen.
2) 賓語從句中的助動詞 ought, need, must, dare 時(shí)態(tài)是不變的。
He thought that I need not tell you the truth.
1.29 時(shí)態(tài)與時(shí)間狀語
時(shí)間狀語
一般現(xiàn)在時(shí) every …, sometimes, at …, on Sunday,
一般過去時(shí) yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982, just now
一般將來時(shí) next…, tomorrow, in+時(shí)間,
現(xiàn)在完成時(shí) for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till/until, up to now, in past years, always, recently
過去完成時(shí) before, by, until, when, after, once, as soon as
過去進(jìn)行時(shí) this morning, the whole morning, all day, yesterday, from nine to ten last evening… when, while
將來進(jìn)行時(shí) soon, tomorrow, this evening, on Sunday, by this time, tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening
12.動詞的語態(tài)
語態(tài)有兩種：主動語態(tài)和被動語態(tài)。
主語是動作的發(fā)出者為主動語態(tài);主語是動作的接受者為被動語態(tài)。
1)若賓語補(bǔ)足語是不帶 to 的不定式，變?yōu)楸粍诱Z態(tài) 時(shí)，該不定式前要加"to"。此類動詞為感官動詞。
feel, hear, help, listen to, look at, make, observe, see, notice, watch
The teacher made me go out of the classroom.
--> I was made to go out of the classroom (by the teacher).
We saw him play football on the playground.
--> He was seen to play football on the playground.
2)情態(tài)動詞+ be +過去分詞，構(gòu)成被動語態(tài)。
12.1Let 的用法
1)當(dāng) let 后只有一個(gè)單音節(jié)動詞，變被動語態(tài)時(shí)，可用不帶 to 的不定式。
They let the strange go.---> The strange was let go.
2) 若 let 后賓補(bǔ)較長時(shí)，let 通常不用被動語態(tài)，而用 allow 或 permit 代替。
The nurse let me go to see my classmate in the hospital.
----> I was allowed / permitted to see my classmate in the hospital.
12.2 短語動詞的被動語態(tài)
短語動詞是一個(gè)整體，不可丟掉后面的介詞或副詞。
This is a photo of the power station that has been set up in my hometown.
My sister will be taken care of by Grandma.
Such a thing has never been heard of before..
12.3 表示"據(jù)說"或"相信" 的詞組
believe, consider, declare, expect, feel , report, say, see, suppose, think, understand
It is said that… 據(jù)說
It is reported that… 據(jù)報(bào)道
It is believed that… 大家相信
It is hoped that… 大家希望
It is well known that… 眾所周知
It is thought that… 大家認(rèn)為
It is suggested that… 據(jù)建議
It is taken granted that… 被視為當(dāng)然
It has been decided that… 大家決定
It must be remember that…務(wù)必記住的是
It is said that she will leave for Wuhan on Tuesday.
12.4 不用被動語態(tài)的情況
1) 不及物動詞或動詞短語無被動語態(tài)：
appear, die disappear, end (vi. 結(jié)束), fail, happen, last, lie, remain, sit, spread, stand break out, come true,
fall asleep, keep silence, lose heart, take place.
After the fire, very little remained of my house.
比較： rise, fall, happen 是不及物動詞;raise, seat 是及物動詞。
(錯(cuò))
The price has been risen.
(對) The price has risen.
(錯(cuò)) The accident was happened last week.
(對) The accident happened last week.
(錯(cuò)) The price has raised.
(對) The price has been raised.
要想正確地使用被動語態(tài)，就須注意哪些動詞是及物的，哪些是不及物的。特別是一詞多義的動詞往往有兩種用法。解決這一問題唯有在學(xué)習(xí)過程中多留意積累。
2) 不能用于被動語態(tài)的及物動詞或動詞短語：
fit, have, hold, marry, own, wish, cost, notice, watch agree with, arrive at / in, shake hands with, succeed in, suffer from, happen to, take part in, walk into, belong to
This key just fits the lock.
Your story agrees with what had already been heard.
3) 系動詞無被動語態(tài)：
appear, be become, fall, feel, get, grow, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn
It sounds good.
4) 帶同源賓語的及物動詞，反身代詞，相互代詞，不能用于被動語態(tài)：
die, death, dream, live, life
She dreamed a bad dream last night.
5) 當(dāng)賓語是不定式時(shí)，很少用于被動語態(tài)。
(對) She likes to swim.
(錯(cuò)) To swim is liked by her.
12.5 主動形式表示被動意義
1)wash, clean, cook, iron, look, cut, sell, read, wear, feel, draw, write, sell, drive…
The book sells well.
這本書銷路好。
This knife cuts easily.
這刀子很好用。
2)blame, let(出租), remain, keep, rent, build
I was to blame for the accident.
Much work remains.
3) 在 need, require, want, worth (形容詞), deserve 后的動名詞必須用主動形式。
The door needs repairing.= The door needs to be repaired.
This room needs cleaning. 這房間應(yīng)該打掃一下。
This book is worth reading. 這本書值得一讀。
4) 特殊結(jié)構(gòu)：make sb. heard / understood (使別人能聽見/理解自己)，have sth. done ( 要某
人做某事)。
12.6 被動語態(tài)表示主動意義
be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be finished, be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get marries
He is graduated from a famous university.他畢業(yè)于一所有名的大學(xué)。
注意： 表示同某人結(jié)婚，用 marry sb. 或 get married to sb. 都可。
He married a rich girl.
He got married to a rich girl.
12.7need/want/require/worth
注意：當(dāng) need, want, require, worth(形容詞)后面接 doing 也可以表示被動。
Your hair wants cutting. 你的頭發(fā)該理了。
The floor requires washing.
地板需要沖洗。
The book is worth reading.
這本書值得一讀。
13.句子的種類
(一)按使用目的可分為陳述句、疑問句、祈使句和感嘆句。
1) 陳述句(Declarative Sentences)：說明一個(gè)事實(shí)或陳述一種看法。
Light travels faster than sound. 光比聲速度快。 (說明事實(shí))
The film is rather boring. 這部電影很乏味。 (說明看法)
2) 疑問句(Interrogative Sentences)：提出問題。有以下四種：
a. 一般疑問句(General Questions)：
Can you finish the work in time? 你能按時(shí)完成工作嗎?
b. 特殊疑問句(W Questions; H Questions)：
Where do you live? 你住那兒?
How do you know that? 你怎么知道那件事?
c. 選擇疑問句(Alternative Questions)：
Do you want tea or coffee? 你是要茶還是要咖啡?
d. 反意疑問句(Tag-Questions)：
He doesn't know her, does he? 他不認(rèn)識她，對不對?
3) 祈使句(Imperative
Sentences)：提出請求，建議或發(fā)出命令，例如：
Sit down, please. 請坐。
Don't be nervous! 別緊張!
4) 感嘆句(Exclamatory
Sentences)：表示說話人驚奇、喜悅、憤怒等情緒，例如：
What good news it is! 多好的消息啊!
(二)句子按其結(jié)構(gòu)可以分為以下三類：
1) 簡單句(Simple Sentences)：只包含一個(gè)主謂結(jié)構(gòu)句子叫簡單句，例如：
2) 并列句(Compound Sentences)：包含兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上主謂結(jié)構(gòu)的句子叫并列句，句與句之間通常用并列連詞或分號來連接，例如：
3) 復(fù)合句(Complex Sentences)：包含一個(gè)主句從句和一個(gè)或幾個(gè)從句的句子叫復(fù)合句，從句由從屬 連詞引導(dǎo)，例如：
(三)基本句型(Basic Sentence Patterns)：英語中千變?nèi)f化的句子歸根結(jié)底都是由以下五種基本句型 組合、擴(kuò)展、變化而來的：
1)主 + 動(SV)例如：
I work. 我工作。
2)主 + 動 + 表(SVP)例如：
John is busy. 約翰忙。
3)主 + 動 + 賓(SVO)例如：
She studies English. 她學(xué)英語。
4)主 + 動 + 賓 + 補(bǔ)(SVOC)例如：
Time would prove me right. 時(shí)間會證明我是對的。
5)主 + 動 + 間賓 + 直賓(SVOiOd)例如：
My mother made me a new dress. 我母親給我做了一件新衣裳。
13.1 句子的種類
祈使句用以表達(dá)命令，要求，請求，勸告等。
1) 祈使句有兩種類型，一種是以動詞原形開頭，在動詞原形之前加 do (但只限于省略第二人稱主語的句 子)。
Take this seat.
Do be careful.
否定結(jié)構(gòu)：
Don't move.
Don't be late.
2) 第二種祈使句以 let 開頭。
Let 的反意疑問句
a. Let's 包括說話者
Let's have another try，shall we / shan't we?
= Shall we have another try?
b. Let us 不包括說話者
Let us have another try，will you / won't you?
= Will you please let us have another try?
否定結(jié)構(gòu)：
Let's not talk of that matter.
Let us not talk of that matter
13.2 感嘆句結(jié)構(gòu)
感嘆句通常有 what, how 引導(dǎo)，表示贊美、驚嘆、喜 悅、等感情。
what 修飾名詞，how 修飾形容詞，副詞或動詞，感嘆句結(jié)構(gòu)主要有以下幾種：
掌握它的搭配，即掌握了感嘆句的重點(diǎn)。
How +形容詞+ a +名詞+ 陳述語序
How+形容詞或副詞+ 陳述語序
What +名詞+陳述語序
What+a+形容詞+名詞+陳述語序
What+ 形容詞+復(fù)數(shù)名詞+陳述語序
What+ 形容詞+不可數(shù)名詞+陳述語序
How clever a boy he is!
How lovely the baby is!
What noise they are making!
What a clever boy he is!
What wonderful ideas (we have)!
What cold weather it is!
感嘆句的省略形式為：
What a clever boy (he is)!
典型例題
1)___ food you've cooked!
A. How a nice
B. What a nice
C. How nice
D. What nice
答案 D.
由于 How 修飾形容詞，副詞;what 修飾名詞。且 food 為不可數(shù)名詞，因此 A，B 排除。C How
+ adj. 后面不能再加名詞，因此只有 D 正確，其句型為 What + adj. +n. (不可數(shù))
2)___terrible weather we've been having these days!
A. What
B. What a
C. How
D. How a
答案 A.
weather 為不可數(shù)名詞，B，D 排除。C 為 how + adj. 后面不應(yīng)有名詞。只有 A，符合句型
What +形容詞+不可數(shù)名詞。
3) --- _____ I had!--- You really suffered a lot.
A. What a time
B. What time
C. How a time
D. how time
答案 A.
感嘆句分兩類：
1：What + n.+主謂部分
2：How + adj. / adv. / v.+主謂部分。本題屬第一種，但省略了 bad，相對于 What a bad time I had! 這是個(gè)習(xí)慣用語。
13.3 強(qiáng)調(diào)句結(jié)構(gòu)
?？嫉膹?qiáng)調(diào)句結(jié)構(gòu)是 it 引導(dǎo)的句子。
It is (was) 被強(qiáng)調(diào)部分+ that (who) + 句子其他部分。
此結(jié)構(gòu)強(qiáng)調(diào)的成分僅限于主語，賓語和狀語。
It is from the sun that we get light and heat.
It was not until I had read your letter that I understood the true state of affairs.
典型例題
1) It was last night ___ I see the comet.
A. the time
B. when
C. that
D. which
答案 C. 強(qiáng)調(diào)句的結(jié)構(gòu)是： It +be +強(qiáng)調(diào)部分 + that (who) + 主謂句。
強(qiáng)調(diào)句的連詞只有兩個(gè)， that 和 who。當(dāng)強(qiáng)調(diào)的部分是人，且為句子的主語時(shí)，才用 "who"，其余用 that。
原句： My father did the experiment in the lab yesterday evening.
強(qiáng)調(diào)主語：
It was my father who did the experiment in the lab yesterday evening.
強(qiáng)調(diào)賓語：
It was the experiment that my father did in the lab yesterday evening.
強(qiáng)調(diào)時(shí)間：
It was yesterday evening that my father did the experiment in the lab. (注意不 用 when)
強(qiáng)調(diào)地點(diǎn)：
It was in the lab that my father did the experiment yesterday evening.
2)It is ten years ___ Miss Green returned to Canada.
A. that
B. when
C. since
D. as
答案 C. 考點(diǎn)是連詞用法。 本題易誤選為 A. that. 其實(shí)本句不是強(qiáng)調(diào)句。若是，去掉 It be… that
還應(yīng)是一個(gè)完整的句子。而本句去掉 'It is…that'，只剩下 ten years Miss Green returned to Canada.
不成句。因此本句不是強(qiáng)調(diào)句。
It is /was +時(shí)間+ since… 其中 is<---> has been was <---> had been.
13.4 用助動詞進(jìn)行強(qiáng)調(diào)
強(qiáng)調(diào)句還有一種類型，就是用助動詞 do (did，does) 強(qiáng)調(diào)謂語。
She does like this horse. 她的確喜歡這匹馬。
Please do take care of yourself. 千萬保重。
13.5 反意疑問句
1) 陳述部分的主語是 I，疑問部分要用 aren't I.
I'm as tall as your sister，aren't I?
2) 陳述部分的謂語是 wish，疑問部分要用 may +主語。
I wish to have a word with you, may I?
3) 陳述部分用 no, nothing, nobody, never, few, seldom, hardly, rarely, little 等否定含義的詞時(shí)，疑問部分用肯定含義。
The Swede made no answer, did he / she?
Some plants never blown (開花), do they ?
4) 含有 ought to 的反意疑問句，陳述部分是肯定的，疑問部分用 shouldn't / oughtn't +主語。
He ought to know what to do, oughtn't he? / shouldn't he?
5) 陳述部分有 have to +v. (had to + v.)，疑問部分常用 don't +主語(didn't +主語)。
We have to get there at eight tomorrow, don't we?
6) 陳述部分的謂語是 used to 時(shí)，疑問部分用 didn't +主語或 usedn't +主語。
He used to take pictures there, didn't he? / usedn't he?
7) 陳述部分有 had better + v. 疑問句部分用 hadn't you?
You'd better read it by yourself, hadn't you?
8) 陳述部分有 would rather +v.，疑問部分多用 wouldn't +主語。
He would rather read it ten times than recite it, wouldn't he?
9) 陳述部分有 You'd like to +v. 疑問部分用 wouldn't +主語。
You'd like to go with me, wouldn't you?
10) 陳述部分有 must 的疑問句，疑問部分根據(jù)實(shí)際情況而定。
He must be a doctor, isn't he?
You must have studied English for three years, haven't you? / didn't you?
He must have finished it yesterday, didn't he?
11) 感嘆句中，疑問部分用 be +主語。
What colures, aren't they?
What a smell, isn't it?
12) 陳述部分由 neither… nor, either… or 連接的并列主語時(shí)，疑問部分根據(jù)其實(shí)際邏輯意義而定。
Neither you nor I am engineer, are we?
13) 陳述部分主語是指示代詞或不定代詞 everything, that, nothing, this, 疑問部分主語用 it。
Everything is ready, isn't it?
14) 陳述部分為主語從句或并列復(fù)合句，疑問部分有三種情況：
a. 并列復(fù)合句疑問部分，謂語動詞根據(jù)鄰近從句的謂語而定。
Mr. Smith had been to Beijing for several times, he should have been in China now, shouldn't he?
b. 帶有定語從句，賓語從句的主從復(fù)合句，疑問部分謂語根據(jù)主句的謂語而定：
He is not the man who gave us a talk, is he?
He said he wanted to visit Japan, didn't he?
c. 上述部分主句謂語是 think, believe, expect, suppose, imagine 等引導(dǎo)的定語從句，疑問部分與 賓語從句相對應(yīng)構(gòu)成反意疑問句。
I don't think he is bright, is he?
We believe she can do it better, can't she?
15) 陳述部分主語是不定代詞 everybody, anyone, somebody, nobody, no one 等，疑問部分常用復(fù)數(shù) they，有時(shí)也用單數(shù) he。
Everyone knows the answer, don't they? (does he?)
Nobody knows about it, do they? (does he?)16) 帶情態(tài)動詞 dare 或 need 的反意疑問句，疑問部分常用 need (dare ) +主語。
We need not do it again, need we ?
He dare not say so, dare you?
當(dāng) dare, need 為實(shí)義動詞時(shí)，疑問部分用助動詞 do + 主語。
She doesn't dare to go home alone, does she?
17) 省去主語的祈使句的反意疑問句，疑問部分用 will you。
Don't do that again, will you?
Go with me, will you / won't you ?
注意： Let's 開頭的祈使句，后用 shall we?
Let us 開頭的祈使句，后用 will you?
Let's go and listen to the music, shall we?
Let us wait for you in the reading-room, will you ?
18) 陳述部分是"there be"結(jié)構(gòu)的，疑問部分用 there 省略主語代詞。
There is something wrong with your watch, isn't there?
There will not be any trouble, will there?
19) 否定前綴不能視為否定詞，其反意疑問句仍用否定形式。
It is impossible, isn't it?
He is not unkind to his classmates, is he?
20) must 在表"推測"時(shí)，根據(jù)其推測的情況來確定反意疑問句。
He must be there now, isn't he?
It must be going to rain tomorrow, won't it?
14.倒裝
14.1 倒裝句之全部倒裝
全部倒裝是只將句子中的謂語動詞全部置于主語之前。此結(jié)構(gòu)通常只用與一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)和
一般過去時(shí)。常 見的結(jié)構(gòu)有：
1) here, there, now, then, thus 等副詞置于句首, 謂語動詞常用 be, come, go, lie, run。
There goes the bell.
Then came the chairman.
Here is your letter.
2) 表示運(yùn)動方向的副詞或地點(diǎn)狀語置于句首，謂語表示運(yùn)動的動詞。
Out rushed a missile from under the bomber.
Ahead sat an old woman.
注意：上述全部倒裝的句型結(jié)構(gòu)的主語必須是名詞，如果主語是人稱代詞則不能完全倒裝。
Here he comes.
Away they went.
14.2 倒裝句之部分倒裝
部分倒裝是指將謂語的一部分如助動詞或情態(tài)倒裝至主語之前。如果句中的謂語沒有助動詞或情態(tài)動詞，則需添加助動詞 do, does 或 did，并將其置于主語之前。
1) 句首為否定或半否定的詞語，如 no, not, never, seldom, little, hardly, at no time, in no way, not until… 等。
Never have I seen such a performance.
Nowhere will you find the answer to this question.
Not until the child fell asleep did the mother leave the room.
當(dāng) Not until 引出主從復(fù)合句，主句倒裝，從句不倒裝。
注意： 如否定詞不在句首不倒裝。I have never seen such a performance.
The mother didn't leave the room until the child fell asleep.
典型例題
1) Why can't I smoke here?
At no time___ in the meeting-room
A. is smoking permitted
B. smoking is permitted
C. smoking is it permitted
D. does smoking permit
答案 A. 這是一個(gè)倒裝問題。當(dāng)否定詞語置于句首以表示強(qiáng)調(diào)時(shí)，其句中的主謂須用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)。 這些否定 詞包括 no, little, hardly, seldom, never, not only, not until 等。本題的正常語序是 Smoking is permitted in the meeting-room at no time.
2) Not until the early years of the 19th century ___ what heat is.
A. man did know
B. man know
C. didn't man know
D. did man know
答案 D.
看到 Not until…的句型，我們知道為一倒裝句，答案在 C，D 中選一個(gè)。 改寫為正常語序?yàn)?，Man did not know what heat is until the early years of the 19th. 現(xiàn)在將 not 提前，后面就不能再用否定了,否則意思就變了。
14.3 以否定詞開頭作部分倒裝 如 Not only…but also, Hardly/Scarcely…when, No
sooner… than
Not only did he refuse the gift, he also severely criticized the sender.
Hardly had she gone out when a student came to visit her.
No sooner had she gone out than a student came to visit her.
典型例題
No sooner___ than it began to rain heavily.
A. the game began
B. has the game begun
C. did the game begin
D. had the game begun
答案 D. 以具有否定意義的副詞放在句首時(shí)，一般采用倒裝句(謂語前置)。這類表示否定意義的詞有 never, seldom, scarcely, little, few, not, hardly, 以及 not only…but (also), no sooner…than, hardly… when scarcely… when 等等。
注意：只有當(dāng) Not only… but also 連接兩個(gè)分句時(shí)，才在第一個(gè)分句用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)。如果置于句首的 Not only… but also 僅連接兩個(gè)并列詞語，不可用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)。
Not only you but also I am fond of music.
14.4so, neither, nor 作部分倒裝表示"也"、"也不" 的句子要部分倒裝。
Tom can speak French. So can Jack.
If you won't go, neither will I.
典型例題
---Do you know Jim quarrelled with his brother?
---I don't know, _____.
A. nor don't I care
B. nor do I care
C. I don't care neither
D. I don't care also
答案：B. nor 為增補(bǔ)意思"也不關(guān)心"，因此句子應(yīng)倒裝。A 錯(cuò)在用 don't 再次否定， C neither 用法不
對且缺乏連詞。 D 缺乏連詞。
注意： 當(dāng) so 引出的句子用以對上文內(nèi)容加以證實(shí)或肯定時(shí)，不可用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)。意為"的確如此"。
Tom asked me to go to play football and so I did.
---It's raining hard.
---So it is.
14.5only 在句首要倒裝的情況
Only in this way, can you learn English well.
Only after being asked three times did he come to the meeting.
如果句子為主從復(fù)合句，則主句倒裝，從句不倒裝
Only when he is seriously ill, does he ever stay in bed.
14.6as, though 引導(dǎo)的倒裝句
as / though 引導(dǎo)的讓步從句必須將表語或狀語提前 (形容詞, 副詞, 分詞, 實(shí)義動詞提前)。
注意：
1) 句首名詞不能帶任何冠詞。
2) 句首是實(shí)義動詞, 其他助動詞放在主語后。如果實(shí)義動詞有賓語和狀語, 隨實(shí)義動詞一起放 在主語之前。
Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.
注意:
讓步狀語從句中，有 though，although 時(shí)，后面的主句不能有 but，但是 though 和 yet 可連用。
14.7 其他部分倒裝
1) so… that 句型中的 so 位于句首時(shí)，需倒裝。
So frightened was he that he did not dare to move an inch.
2) 在某些表示祝愿的句型中：
May you all be happy.
3) 在虛擬語氣條件句中從句謂語動詞有 were, had, should 等詞，可將 if 省略，把 were, had, should 移到主語之前，采取部分倒裝。
Were I you, I would try it again.
典型例題：
1) Not until the early years of the 19th century___ what heat is
A. man did know
B. man knew
C. didn't man know
D. did man know
答案為 D. 否定詞 Not 在句首，要求用部分倒裝的句子結(jié)構(gòu)。
2) Not until I began to work ___ how much time I had wasted.
A. didn't I realize
B. did I realize
C. I didn't realize
D. I realize
答案為 B。
3) Do you know Tom bought a new car?
I don't know, ___.
A. nor don't I care
B. nor do I care
C. I don't care neither
D. I don't care also
解析：答案為 B.
句中的 nor 引出部分倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)，表示"也不"。由 so, neither, nor 引導(dǎo)的倒裝句， 表示前一情況的重復(fù)出現(xiàn)。其中, so 用于肯定句, 而 neither, nor 用在否定句中。
15.主謂一致
主謂一致是指：
1) 語法形式上要一致，即單復(fù)數(shù)形式與謂語要一致。
2) 意義上要一致，即主語意義上的單復(fù)數(shù)要與謂語的單復(fù)數(shù)形式一致。
3) 就近原則，即謂語動詞的單復(fù)形式取決于最靠近它的詞語，
一般來說，不可數(shù)名詞用動詞單數(shù)，可數(shù)名詞復(fù)數(shù)用動詞復(fù)數(shù)。
There is much water in the thermos.
但當(dāng)不可數(shù)名詞前有表示數(shù)量的復(fù)數(shù)名詞時(shí)，謂語動詞用復(fù)數(shù)形式。
Ten thousand tons of coal were produced last year.
15.1 并列結(jié)構(gòu)作主語謂語用復(fù)數(shù)
Reading and writing are very important.
注意： 當(dāng)主語由 and 連結(jié)時(shí)，如果它表示一個(gè)單一的概念，即指同一人或同一物時(shí)，謂語動詞用單數(shù)， and 此時(shí)連接的兩個(gè)詞前只有一個(gè)冠詞。
The iron and steel industry is very important to our life.
典型例題
The League secretary and monitor ___ asked to make a speech at the meeting.
A. is
B. was
C. are
D. were
答案 B. 注： 先從時(shí)態(tài)上考慮。這是過去發(fā)生的事情應(yīng)用過去時(shí)，先排除 A.，C.。本題易誤選 D，因?yàn)?The League secretary and monitor 好象是兩個(gè)人，但仔細(xì)辨別， monitor 前沒有 the，在英語中，
當(dāng)一人兼數(shù)職時(shí)只在第一個(gè)職務(wù)前加定冠詞。后面的職務(wù)用 and 相連。這樣本題主語為一個(gè)人，所以應(yīng)選 B。
15.2 主謂一致中的靠近原則
1)當(dāng) there be 句型的主語是一系列事物時(shí)，謂語應(yīng)與最鄰近的主語保持一致。
There is a pen, a knife and several books on the desk..
There are twenty boy-students and twenty-three girl-students in the class.
2)當(dāng) either… or… 與 neither… nor， 連接兩個(gè)主語時(shí)，謂語動詞與最鄰近的主語保持一致。 如果句 子是由 here, there 引導(dǎo)，而主語又不止一個(gè)時(shí)，謂語通常也和最鄰近的主語一致。
Either you or she is to go.
15.3 謂語動詞與前面的主語一致
當(dāng)主語后面跟有 with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as 等詞引起的短語時(shí)， 謂語動詞與前面的主語一致。
15.4 謂語需用單數(shù)
1) 代詞 each 和由 every, some, no, any 等構(gòu)成的復(fù)合代詞作主語，或主語中含有 each, every, 謂語需用單數(shù)。
Each of us has a tape-recorder.There is something wrong with my watch.
2) 當(dāng)主語是一本書或一條格言時(shí)，謂語動詞常用單數(shù)。
The Arabian Night is a book known to lovers of English.
<<天方夜譚>>是英語愛好者熟悉的一本好書。
3) 表示金錢，時(shí)間，價(jià)格或度量衡的復(fù)合名詞作主語時(shí)，通常把這些名詞看作一個(gè)整體，謂語一般用單數(shù)。(用復(fù)數(shù)也可，意思不變。)
Three weeks was allowed for making the necessary preparations.
Ten yuan is enough.
15.5 指代意義決定謂語的單復(fù)數(shù)
1) 在代詞 what, which, who, none, some, any, more, most, all 等詞的單復(fù)數(shù)由其指代的詞的單復(fù)數(shù)決定。
All is right. (一切順利。)
All are present. (所有人都到齊了。)
2) 集體名詞作主語時(shí)，謂語的數(shù)要根據(jù)主語的意思來決定。如 family, audience, crew, crowd, class, company, committee 等詞后用復(fù)數(shù)形式時(shí)，意為這個(gè)集體中的各個(gè)成員，用單數(shù)時(shí)表示該個(gè)集體。
His family isn't very large. 他家不是一個(gè)大家庭。
His family are music lovers. 他的家人都是音樂愛好者。
但集合名詞 people, police, cattle, poultry 等在任何情況下都用復(fù)數(shù)形式。
Are there any police around?
3)有些名詞，如 variety, number, population, proportion, majority 等有時(shí)看作單數(shù)，有時(shí)看作復(fù)數(shù)。
A number of +名詞復(fù)數(shù)+復(fù)數(shù)動詞。
The number of +名詞復(fù)數(shù)+單數(shù)動詞。
A number of books have lent out.
The majority of the students like English.
15.6 與后接名詞或代詞保持一致
1) 用 half of, part of, most of, a portion of 等詞引起主語時(shí)，動詞通常與 of 后面的名詞，代詞保持 一致。
Most of his money is spent on books.
Most of the students are taking an active part in sports.
2) 在一些短語，如 many a 或 more than one 所修飾的詞作主語時(shí)，謂語動詞多用單數(shù)形式。但由 more than… of 作主語時(shí)，動詞應(yīng)與其后的名詞或代詞保持一致。
Many a person has read the novel. 許多人都讀過這本書。
More than 60 percent of the students are from the city.百分之六十多的學(xué)生都來自這個(gè)城市。
16.虛擬語氣
1) 概念
虛擬語氣用來表示說話人的主觀愿望或假想，所說的是一個(gè)條件，不一定是事實(shí)，或與事實(shí)相反。
2) 在條件句中的應(yīng)用條件句可分為兩類，一類為真實(shí)條件句，一類為非真實(shí)條件句。非真實(shí)條件句表示的是假設(shè)的或?qū)嶋H可能性不大的情況，故采用虛擬語氣。
16.1 真是條件句
真實(shí)條件句用于陳述語氣，假設(shè)的情況可能發(fā)生，其中 if 是如果的意思。
典型例題
The volleyball match will be put off if it ___.
A. will rain
B. rains
C. rained
D. is rained
答案 B。真實(shí)條件句主句為將來時(shí)，從句用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)。
注意： 1) 在真實(shí)條件句中，主句不能用 be going to 表示將來，該用 shall, will.
(錯(cuò)) If you leave now, you are never going to regret it.
(對) If you leave now, you will never regret it.
2) 表示真理時(shí)，主句謂語動詞便不用 shall (will) +動詞原形，而直接用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)的動詞形式。
16.2 非真實(shí)條件句
1)時(shí)態(tài)：可以表示過去，現(xiàn)在和將來的情況。它的基本特點(diǎn)是時(shí)態(tài)退后。
a. 同現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反的假設(shè)。
b.
表示于過去事實(shí)相反的假設(shè)。
If she had worked harder, she would have succeeded.
The rice would not have been burnt if you had been more careful.
If my lawyer had been here last Saturday, he would have prevented me from going.
If he had come yesterday, I should / would have told him about it.
含義：He did not come yesterday, so I did not tell him about it.
If he had not been ill and missed many classes, he would have made greater progress.
含義： He was ill and missed many lessons, so he did not make greater progress.
c. 表示對將來的假想
If you succeeded, everything would be all right.
If you should succeed, everything would be all right.
If you were to succeed, everything would be all right.
16.3 混合條件句
主句與從句的動作發(fā)生在不同的時(shí)間，這時(shí)主，從句謂語動詞的虛擬語氣形式因時(shí)間不同而不同，這叫做 混合條件句。
If you had asked him yesterday, you would know what to do now.
(從句與過去事實(shí)相反，主句與現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反。)
If it had rained last night (過去), it would be very cold today (現(xiàn)在).
16.4 虛擬條件句的倒裝
虛擬條件句的從句部分如果含有 were, should, 或 had, 可將 if 省略，再把 were, should 或 had 移到 從句句首，實(shí)行倒裝。
Were they here now, they could help us.
=If they were here now, they could help us.
Had you come earlier, you would have met him
=If you had come earlier, you would have met him.
Should it rain, the crops would be saved.
=Were it to rain, the crops would be saved.
注意：
在虛擬語氣的從句中，動詞'be'的過去時(shí)態(tài)一律用"were"，不用 was， 即在從句中 be 用 were 代替。
If I were you, I would go to look for him.
如果我是你，就會去找他。
If he were here, everything would be all right.
如果他在這兒，一切都會好的。
典型例題
_____ to do the work, I should do it some other day.
A. If were I
B. I were
C. Were I
D. Was I
答案 C.
在虛擬條件狀語中如果有were, should, had這三個(gè)詞，通常將if 省略，主語提前, 變成 were, should, had +主語的形式。但要注意，在虛擬條件狀語從句中，省略連詞的倒裝形式
16.5 特殊的虛擬語氣詞：should
1) It is demanded / necessary / a pity + that…結(jié)構(gòu)中的主語從句的謂語動詞要用 should 加動詞 原形，
should 可省略。
(1)suggested, ordered, proposed, required, demanded, requested, insisted; + (should) do
(2)important, necessary, natural, strange a pity, a shame, no wonder
(3)It is suggested that we (should) hold a meeting next week.
It is necessary that he (should) come to our meeting tomorrow.
2)在賓語從句中的應(yīng)用
在表示命令、建議、要求等一類動詞后面的從句中。
order, suggest, propose, require, demand, request, insist, command, insist + (should) do
I suggest that we (should) hold a meeting next week.
He insisted that he (should ) be sent there.
注意： 如 suggest, insist 不表示"建議" 或"堅(jiān)持要某人做某事時(shí)"，即它們用于其本意"暗示、表明"、 "堅(jiān)持認(rèn)為"時(shí)，賓語從句用陳述語氣。
The guard at gate insisted that everybody obey the rules.
判斷改錯(cuò):
(錯(cuò)) You pale face suggests that you (should) be ill.
(對) Your pale face suggests that you are ill.
(錯(cuò)) I insisted that you ( should) be wrong.
(對) I insisted that you were wrong.
3)在表語從句，同位語從句中的應(yīng)用
在 suggestion, proposal, idea, plan, order, advice 等名詞后面的表語從句、同位語從句中要用 虛擬語氣，即(should)+動詞原形。
My idea is that we (should) get more people to attend the conference.
I make a proposal that we (should) hold a meeting next week.
16.6wish 的用法
1)用于 wish 后面的從句，表示與事實(shí)相反的情況，或表示將來不太可能實(shí)現(xiàn)的愿望。其賓語從句的動詞形式為：
I wish I were as tall as you. 我希望和你一樣高。
He wished he hadn't said that. 他希望他沒講那樣的話。
I wish it would rain tomorrow. 我希望明天下雨就好了。
2)Wish to do 表達(dá)法。
Wish sb / sth to do
I wish to see the manager. = I want to see the manager.I wish the manager to be informed at once. (= I want the manager to be informed at once.)
16.7 比較 if only 與 only
if only if 表示"只有";if only 則表示"如果……就好了"。If only 也可用于陳述語氣。
I wake up only if the alarm clock rings. 只有鬧鐘響了，我才會醒。
If only the alarm clock had rung. 當(dāng)時(shí)鬧鐘響了，就好了。
If only he comes early. 但愿他早點(diǎn)回來。
16.8It is (high) time that
It is (high) time that 后面的從句謂語動詞要用過去式或用 should 加動詞原形，但 should 不可省略。
It is time that the children went to bed.
It is high time that the children should go to bed.
16.9need "不必做"和"本不該做"
didn't need to do 表示： 過去不必做某事, 事實(shí)上也沒做。.
needn't have done 表示： 過去不必做某事, 但事實(shí)上做了。
John went to the station with the car to meet Mary, so she didn't need to walk back home.
約翰開車去車站接瑪麗，所以她不必步行回家了。
John went to the station with the car to meet Mary, so she needn't have walked back home.
約翰開車去車站接瑪麗，所以她本不必步行回家了。 (Mary 步行回家，沒有遇上 John 的車。)
典型例題
There was plenty of time. She ___.
A. mustn't have hurried
B. couldn't have hurried
C. must not hurry
D. needn't have hurried
答案 D。needn't have done.
意為"本不必"，即已經(jīng)做了某事，而時(shí)實(shí)際上不必要。
Mustn't have done 用法不正確，對過去發(fā)生的事情進(jìn)行否定性推斷應(yīng)為 couldn't have done, "不
可能已經(jīng)"。 must not do 不可以(用于一般現(xiàn)在時(shí))。
17.名詞性從句
在句子中起名詞作用的句子叫名詞從句 (Noun Clauses)。名詞從句的功能相當(dāng)于名詞詞組, 它在復(fù)合句中能擔(dān)任主語、賓語、表語、同位語、介詞賓語等，因此根據(jù)它在句中不同的語法功能，名詞從句又可分別稱為主語從句、賓語從句、表語從句和同位語從句。
17.1 引導(dǎo)名詞性從句的連接詞
引導(dǎo)名詞性從句的連接詞可分為三類：
連接詞：that,whether,if 不充當(dāng)從句的任何成分)
連接代詞：what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whose, which.
連接副詞：when, where, how, why
不可省略的連詞：
1. 介詞后的連詞
2. 引導(dǎo)主語從句和同位語從句的連詞不可省略。
That she was chosen made us very happy.
We heard the news that our team had won.
比較：whether 與 if 均為"是否"的意思。 但在下列情況下，whether 不能被 if 取代：
1. whether 引導(dǎo)主語從句并在句首
2. 引導(dǎo)表語從句
3. whether 從句作介詞賓語
4. 從句后有"or not"
Whether he will come is not clear.
大部分連接詞引導(dǎo)的主語從句都可以置于句末，用 it 充當(dāng)形式主語。
It is not important who will go.
It is still unknown which team will win the match.
17.2 名詞性 that-從句
1)由從屬連詞 that 引導(dǎo)的從句叫做名詞性 that-從句。 That 只起連接主句和從句的作用，在從句中不擔(dān)任任何成分，本身也沒有詞義。名詞性 that-從句在句中能充當(dāng)主 語、賓語、表語、同位語和形容詞賓語，例如：
主語：That he is still alive is sheer luck.
他還活著全靠運(yùn)氣。
賓語：John said that he was leaving for London on Wednesday. 約翰說他星期三要到倫敦去。
表語：The fact is that he has not been seen recently.
事實(shí)是近來誰也沒有見過他。
同位語：The fact that he has not been seen recently disturbs everyone in his office.
近來誰也沒有見過他，這一事實(shí)令辦公室所有的人不安。
形容詞賓語：I am glad that you are satisfied with your job.
你對工作滿意我感到很高興。
2)That-從句作主語通常用 it 作先行詞，而將 that-從句置于句末，例如：
It is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to failure. 很清楚，整個(gè)計(jì)劃注定要失敗。
It's a pity that you should have to leave. 你非走不可真是件憾事。
用 it 作形式主語的 that-從句有以下四種不同的搭配關(guān)系：
a. It + be +形容詞+ that-從句
It is necessary that… 有必要……
It is important that… 重要的是……
It is obvious that… 很明顯……
b. It + be + -ed 分詞+ that-從句
It is believed that… 人們相信……
It is known to all that… 從所周知……
It has been decided that… 已決定……
c. It + be +名詞+ that-從句
It is common knowledge that… ……是常識
It is a surprise that… 令人驚奇的是……
It is a fact that… 事實(shí)是……
d. It +不及物動詞+ that-分句
It appears that… 似乎……
It happens that… 碰巧……
It occurred to me that… 我突然想起……
17.3 名詞性 wh-從句1)由 wh-詞引導(dǎo)的名詞從句叫做名詞性 wh-從句。Wh-詞包括 who, whom,. whose, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever 等連接代詞和 where, when, how, why 等連接副詞。Wh-從句的語法功能除了和 that-從句一樣外，還可充當(dāng)介詞賓語、賓語補(bǔ)語和間接賓語等，例如：
主語： How the book will sell depends on its author. 書銷售如何取決于作者本人。
直接賓語：In one's own home one can do what one likes. 在自己家里可以隨心所欲。
間接賓語：The club will give whoever wins a prize. 俱樂部將給得勝者設(shè)獎。
表語： My question is who will take over president of the Foundation. 我的問題是誰將接任該基金會主席職位。
賓語補(bǔ)足語：She will name him whatever she wants to. 她高興給他起什么名字就取什么名字。
同位語： I have no idea when he will return. 我不知道他什么時(shí)候回來。
形容詞賓語：I'm not sure why she refused their invitation.
我尚不能肯定她為什么拒絕他們的邀 請。
介詞賓語： That depends on where we shall go. 那取決于我們?nèi)ツ膬骸?/p>
2)Wh-從句作主語也常用先行詞 it 做形式主語，而將 wh-從句置于句末，例如：
It is not yet decided who will do that job. 還沒決定誰做這項(xiàng)工作。
It remains unknown when they are going to get married. 他們何時(shí)結(jié)婚依然不明。
17.4if, whether 引導(dǎo)的名詞從句
1)yes-no 型疑問從句
從屬連詞 if, whether 引導(dǎo)的名詞從句是由一般疑問句或選擇疑問轉(zhuǎn)化而來的，因此也分別被稱為
yes-no 型疑問句從句和選擇型疑問從句，其功能和 wh-從句的功能相同， 例如：
主語：Whether the plan is feasible remains to be proved. 這一計(jì)劃是否可行還有等證實(shí)。
賓語：Let us know whether / if you can finish the article before Friday. 請讓我們知道你是否 能在星期五以前把文章寫完。
表語：The point is whether we should lend him the money. 問題在于我們是否應(yīng)該借錢給他。
同位語：They are investigating the question whether the man is trustworthy. 他們調(diào)查他是 否值得信賴。
形容詞賓語： She's doubtful whether we shall be able to come. 她懷疑我們是否能夠前來。
介詞賓語： I worry about whether he can pass through the crisis of his illness. 我擔(dān)心他 是否能度過疾病的危險(xiǎn)期。
2)選擇性疑問從句
選擇性疑問從句由關(guān)聯(lián)詞 if/whether…or 或 whether…or not 構(gòu)成，例如：
Please tell me whether / if they are Swedish or Danish. 請告訴我他們是瑞典人還是丹麥人。
I don't care whether you like the plan or not.我不在乎你是否喜歡該計(jì)劃。
17.5 否定轉(zhuǎn)移
1) 將 think, believe, suppose, expect, fancy, imagine 等動詞后面賓語從句的否定詞轉(zhuǎn)移到主句中， 即主句的謂語動詞用否定式，而從句的謂語動詞用肯定式。
I don't think I know you. 我想我并不認(rèn)識你。
I don' t believe he will come. 我相信他不回來。
注意：若謂語動詞為 hope,賓語從句中的否定詞不能轉(zhuǎn)移。
I hope you weren't ill. 我想你沒有生病吧。
2) 將 seem, appear 等后的從句的否定轉(zhuǎn)移到前面。
It doesn't seem that they know where to go.看來他們不知道往哪去。
It doesn't appear that we'll have a sunny day tomorrow. 看來我們明天不會碰上好天氣。
3) 有時(shí)將動名詞，介詞短語或整個(gè)從句的否定轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)閷χ^語動詞的否定。
I don't remember having ever seen such a man.
我記得從未見過這樣一個(gè)人。 (not 否定動名詞短語 having…)
It's not a place where anyone would expect to see strange characters on the street.
在這里，人們不會想到在街上會碰上陌生的人。
(anyone 作主語，從句中的謂語動詞不能用否定形式。)
4) 有時(shí)狀語或狀語從句中否定可以轉(zhuǎn)移到謂語動詞前。
The ant is not gathering this for itself alone. (否定狀語) 螞蟻不只是為自己采食。
He was not ready to believe something just because Aristotle said so. (否定 because 狀語)
他并不因亞里斯多德說過如何如何，就輕信此事。
She had not been married many weeks when that man's younger brother saw her and was
struck by her beauty. (否定狀語 many weeks) 她結(jié)婚還不到幾個(gè)月，這個(gè)人的弟弟就看見她了，
并對她的美貌著了迷。
18.定語從句
定語從句(Attributive Clauses)在句中做定語，修飾一個(gè)名詞或代詞，被修飾的名詞,詞組或代詞即先行詞。定語從句通常出現(xiàn)在先行詞之后，由關(guān)系詞(關(guān)系代詞或關(guān)系副詞)引出。
關(guān)系代詞有：who, whom, whose, that, which 等。
關(guān)系副詞有：when, where, why 等。
18.1 關(guān)系代詞引導(dǎo)的定語從句關(guān)系代詞所代替的先行詞是人或物的名詞或代詞，并在句中充當(dāng)主語、賓語、定語等成分。關(guān)系代詞在定
語從句中作主語時(shí)，從句謂語動詞的人稱和數(shù)要和先行詞保持一致。
1)who, whom, that
這些詞代替的先行詞是人的名詞或代詞，在從句中所起作用如下：
Is he the man who/that wants to see you?
他就是你想見的人嗎?(who/that 在從句中作主語)
He is the man whom/ that I saw yesterday.
他就是我昨天見的那個(gè)人。(whom/that 在從句中作賓語)
2) Whose 用來指人或物，(只用作定語, 若指物，它還可以同 of which 互換), 例如：
They rushed over to help the man whose car had broken down.
那人車壞了，大家都跑過 去幫忙。
Please
pass me the book whose (of which) cover is green. 請遞給我那本綠皮的書。
3)which, that 它們所代替的先行詞是事物的名詞或代詞，在從句中可作主語、賓語等，例如：
A prosperity which / that had never been seen before appears in the countryside. 農(nóng)村出
現(xiàn)了前所未有的繁榮。(which / that 在句中作賓語)
The package (which / that) you are carrying is about to come unwrapped.
你拿的包快散 了。(which / that 在句中作賓語)
18.2 關(guān)系副詞引導(dǎo)的定語從句
關(guān)系副詞可代替的先行詞是時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)或理由的名詞，在從句中作狀語。
1)when, where, why
關(guān)系副詞 when, where, why 的含義相當(dāng)于"介詞+ which"結(jié)構(gòu)，因此常常和"介詞+ which"結(jié)構(gòu)交
替使用，例如：
There are occasions when
(on which) one must yield. 任何人都有不得不屈服的時(shí)候。
Beijing is the place where
(in which) I was born. 北京是我的出生地。
Is this the reason why (for which) he refused our offer? 這就是他拒絕我們幫助他的理由嗎?
2)that 代替關(guān)系副詞
that 可以用于表示時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)、方式、理由的名詞后取代 when, where, why 和"介詞+ which"引導(dǎo)
的定語從句，在口語中 that 常被省略，例如：
His father died the year (that / when / in which) he was born. 他父親在他出生那年逝世了。
He is unlikely to find the place (that / where / in which) he lived forty years ago. 他不大可能找到他四十年前居住過的地方。
18.3 判斷關(guān)系代詞與關(guān)系副詞
方法一： 用關(guān)系代詞，還是關(guān)系副詞完全取決于從句中的謂語動詞。及物動詞后面無賓語，就必須要求用關(guān)系代詞;而不及物動詞則要求用關(guān)系副詞。例如：
This is the mountain village where I stayed last year.
I'll never forget the days when I worked together with you.
判斷改錯(cuò)(注：先顯示題，再顯示答案，橫線;用不同的顏色表示出。)
(錯(cuò)) This is the mountain village where I visited last year.
(錯(cuò)) I will never forget the days when I spent in the countryside.
(對) This is the mountain village (which) I visited last year.
(對) I'll never forget the days (which) I spent in the countryside.
習(xí)慣上總把表地點(diǎn)或時(shí)間的名詞與關(guān)系副詞 where, when 聯(lián)系在一起。此兩題錯(cuò)在關(guān)系詞的誤用上。
方法二：
準(zhǔn)確判斷先行詞在定語從句中的成分(主、謂、賓、定、狀)，也能正確選擇出關(guān)系代詞/關(guān)系 副詞。
例 1. Is this museum ___ you visited a few days age?
A. where
B. that
C. on which
D. the one
例 2. Is this the museum ____ the exhibition was held.
A. where
B.
that
C. on which
D. the one
答案：例 1 D，例 2
A
例 1 變?yōu)榭隙ň洌?/p>
This museum is ___ you visited a few days ago.
例 2 變?yōu)榭隙ň洌?/p>
This is the museum ___ the exhibition was held.
在句 1 中，所缺部分為賓語，而 where, that, on which 都不能起到賓語的作用，只有 the one 既
做了主句的表語，又可做從句的賓語，可以省略關(guān)系代詞，所以應(yīng)選 D。
而句 2 中, 主、謂、賓俱全，從句部分為句子的狀語表地點(diǎn)，既可用副詞 where，又因 in the museum
詞組，可用介詞 in + which 引導(dǎo)地點(diǎn)狀語。而此題中，介詞 on 用的不對，所以選 A。
關(guān)系詞的選擇依據(jù)在從句中所做的成分，先行詞在從句中做主、定、賓語時(shí)，選擇關(guān)系代詞 (who,
whom, that, which, whose); 先行詞在從句中做狀語時(shí)，應(yīng)選擇關(guān)系副詞 ( where 地點(diǎn)狀語，when
時(shí)間狀語，why 原因狀語) 。
18.4 限制性和非限制性定語從句
1) 定語從句有限制性和非限制性兩種。限制性定語從句是先行詞不可缺少的部分，去掉它主句意思往往不 明確;非限制性定語從句是先行詞的附加說明，去掉了也不會影響主句的意思，它與主句之間通常用逗號分開，例如：
This is the house which we bought last month.
這是我們上個(gè)月買的那幢房子。(限制 性)
The house, which we bought last month, is very nice.這幢房子很漂亮，是我們上個(gè)月買的。 (非限制性)
2) 當(dāng)先行詞是專有名詞或物主代詞和指示代詞所修飾時(shí)，其后的定語從句通常是非限制性的，例如：
Charles Smith, who was my former teacher, retired last year.
查理·史密斯去年退休了，他
曾經(jīng)是我的老師。
My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden.
我去年買的的那幢房子帶著 個(gè)漂亮的花園。
This novel, which I have read three times, is very touching. 這本小說很動人，我已經(jīng)讀了三遍。
3) 非限制性定語從句還能將整個(gè)主句作為先行詞,對其進(jìn)行修飾, 這時(shí)從句謂語動詞要用第三人稱單數(shù)，
例如：
He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me. 他似乎沒抓住我的意思，這使我心煩。
Liquid water changes to vapor,
which is called evaporation.
液態(tài)水變?yōu)檎羝?，這就叫做蒸發(fā)。說明：關(guān)系代詞 that 和關(guān)系副詞 why 不能引導(dǎo)非限制性定語從句。
18.5 介詞+關(guān)系詞
1)介詞后面的關(guān)系詞不能省略。
2)that 前不能有介詞。
3) 某些在從句中充當(dāng)時(shí)間，地點(diǎn)或原因狀語的"介詞+關(guān)系詞"結(jié)構(gòu)可以同關(guān)系副詞 when 和 where 互 換。
This is the house in which I lived two years ago.
This is the house where I lived two years ago.
Do you remember the day on which you joined our club?
18.6as, which 非限定性定語從句
由 as, which 引導(dǎo)的非限定性定語從句，as 和 which 可代整個(gè)主句，相當(dāng)于 and this 或 and that。As 一般放在句首，which 在句中。
As we know, smoking is harmful to one's health.
The sun heats the earth, which is very important to us.
典型例題
1)Alice received an invitation from her boss, ___came as a surprise.
A. it
B. that
C. which
D. he
答案 C. 此為非限定性從句，不能用 that 修飾，而用 which.，it 和 he 都使后句成為句子，兩個(gè)獨(dú)
立的句子不能單以逗號連接。況且選 he 句意不通。
2)The weather turned out to be very good, ___ was more than we could expect.
A. what B. which C. that D. it
答案 B。which 可代替句子，用于非限定性定語從句，而 what 不可。That 不能用于非限定性定語從
句，it 不為連詞，使由逗號連接的兩個(gè)句子并在一起在英語語法上行不通。
3)It rained hard
yesterday, ____ prevented me from going to the park..
A. that
B. which
C. as
D. it
答案 B.
as 和 which 在引導(dǎo)非限制性定語從句時(shí)，這兩個(gè)關(guān)系代詞都指主句所表達(dá)的整個(gè)意思，且在定語從
句中都可以作主語和賓語。但不同之處主要有兩點(diǎn)：
(1) as 引導(dǎo)的定語從句可置于句首，而 which 不可。
(2) as 代表前面的整個(gè)主句并在從句中作主語時(shí)，從句中的謂語必須是系動詞;若為行為動詞，則從句中的關(guān)系代詞只能用 which.。
在本題中，prevent 由于是行為動詞，所以正確選項(xiàng)應(yīng)為 B。
As 的用法
例 1.
the same… as;such…as 中的 as 是一種固定結(jié)構(gòu), 和……一樣……。
I have got into the same trouble as he (has).
例 2.
as 可引導(dǎo)非限制性從句，常帶有'正如'。
As we know, smoking is harmful to one's health.
As is know, smoking is harmful to one's health.
As 是關(guān)系代詞。例 1 中的 as 作 know 的賓語;例 2 中，它充當(dāng)從句的主語，謂語動詞 know 要用被動式。
18.7 先行詞和關(guān)系詞二合一
1)Whoever spits in public will be punished here.
(Whoever 可以用 anyone who
代替)
2)The parents will use what they have to send their son to technical school.
(what 可以用 all that 代替)
18.8what/whatever;that/what; who/whoever
1)Whoever spits in public will be punished here.
(Whoever 可以用 anyone who 代替)
2)The parents will use what they have to send their son to technical school.
(what 可以用 all that 代替)
18.9 關(guān)系代詞 that 的用法
1)不用 that 的情況
a) 在引導(dǎo)非限定性定語從句時(shí)。
(錯(cuò)) The tree, that is four hundred years old, is very famous here.
b) 介詞后不能用。
We depend on the land from which we get our food.
We depend on the land that/which we get our food from.
2) 只能用 that 作為定語從句的關(guān)系代詞的情況
a) 在 there be 句型中，只用 that，不用 which。
b) 在不定代詞，如：anything, nothing, the one, all, much, few, any, little 等作先行詞時(shí)，
只用 that，不用 which。
c) 先行詞有 the only, the very 修飾時(shí)，只用 that。
d) 先行詞為序數(shù)詞、數(shù)詞、形容詞最高級時(shí)，只用 that。.
e) 先行詞既有人，又有物時(shí)。
舉例：
All that is needed is a supply of oil.
所需的只是供油問題。
Finally, the thief handed everything that he had stolen to the police.
那賊最終把偷的全部東西交給了警察。
19.狀語從句
19.1 地點(diǎn)狀語從句
地點(diǎn)狀語從句通常由 where, wherever 引導(dǎo)。
Where I live there are plenty of trees.
我住的地方樹很多。
Wherever I am I will be thinking of you.
不管我在哪里我都會想到你。
19.2 方式狀語從句
方式狀語從句通常由 as, (just) as…so…, as if, as though 引導(dǎo)。
1) as, (just) as…so…引導(dǎo)的方式狀語從句通常位于主句后，但在(just) as…so…結(jié)構(gòu)中位于句首，這時(shí) as 從句帶有比喻的含義，意思是"正如…"，"就像"，多用于正式文體，例如：
Always do to the others as you would be done by.
你希望人家怎樣待你，你就要怎樣待人。
As water is to fish, so air is to man.
我們離不開空氣，猶如魚兒離不開水。
Just as we sweep our rooms, so we should sweep backward ideas from our minds.
正如打掃房屋一樣，我們也要掃除我們頭腦中落后的東西。
2) as if, as though
兩者的意義和用法相同，引出的狀語從句謂語多用虛擬語氣，表示與事實(shí)相反，有時(shí)也用陳述語氣，表示所說情況是事實(shí)或?qū)崿F(xiàn)的可能性較大。漢譯常作"仿佛……似的"，"好像……似的"，例如：
They completely ignore these facts as if (as though) they never existed.
他們完全忽略了這些事實(shí)，就仿佛它不存在似的。(與事實(shí)相反，謂語用虛擬語氣。)
He looks as if (as though) he had been hit by lighting.
他那樣子就像被雷擊了似的。(與事實(shí)相反，謂語用虛擬語氣。)
It looks as if the weather may pick up very soon.
看來天氣很快就會好起來。(實(shí)現(xiàn)的可能性較大，謂語用陳述語氣。)
說明：as if / as though 也可以引導(dǎo)一個(gè)分詞短語、不定式短語或無動詞短語，例如：
He stared at me as if seeing me for first time.
他目不轉(zhuǎn)睛地看著我，就像第一次看見我似的。
He cleared his throat as if to say something.
他清了清嗓子，像要說什么似的。
The waves dashed on the rocks as if in anger.
波濤沖擊著巖石，好像很憤怒。
19.3 原因狀語從句
比較：because, since, as 和 for
1) because 語勢最強(qiáng)，用來說明人所不知的原因，回答 why 提出的問題。當(dāng)原因是顯而易見的或已為人們所知，就用 as 或 since。
I didn't go, because I was afraid.
Since /As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey.
2) 由 because 引導(dǎo)的從句如果放在句末，且前面有逗 號，則可以用 for 來代替。但如果不是說明直接原因，而是多種情況加以推斷，就只能用 for。
He is absent today, because / for he is ill.He must be ill, for he is absent today.
19.4 目的狀語從句
表示目的狀語的從句可以由 that, so that, in order that, lest, for fear that, in case 等詞引導(dǎo)，例如：
You must speak louder so that /in order that you can be heard by all.
He wrote the name down for fear that(lest) he should forget it.
Better take more clothes in case the weather is cold.
19.5 結(jié)果狀語從句
結(jié)果狀語從句常由 so… that 或 such…that 引導(dǎo)，掌握這兩個(gè)句型，首先要了解 so 和 such 與其后的詞的搭配規(guī)律。
比較：so 和 such 其規(guī)律由 so 與 such 的不同詞性決定。such 是形容詞，修飾名詞或名詞詞組，so
是副詞，只能修飾形容詞或副詞。 so 還可與表示數(shù)量的形容詞 many, few, much, little 連用，形成固定搭配。
( so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 雖相當(dāng)于 many，但 a lot of 為名詞性的，只能用 such 搭配。)
so…that 與 such…that 之間的轉(zhuǎn)換既為 so 與 such 之間的轉(zhuǎn)換。
The boy is so young that he can't go to school.
He is such a young boy that he can't go to school
19.6 條件狀語從句
連接詞主要有 if, unless, as/so long as, on condition that 等。.
if 引導(dǎo)的條件句有真實(shí)條件句和非真實(shí)條件句兩種。非真實(shí)條件句已在虛擬語氣中闡述。
unless = if not.
Let's go out for a walk unless you are too tired.
If you are not too tied, let's go out for a walk.
典型例題
You will be late ___ you leave immediately.
A. unless
B. until
C. if
D. or
答案 A。 句意：除非你立即走，否則你就回遲到的。可轉(zhuǎn)化為 If you dong leave immediately, you
will be late. B、D 句意不對，or 表轉(zhuǎn)折，句子如為 You leave immediately or you will be late.
19.7 讓步狀語從句
though, although
注意：
當(dāng)有 though, although 時(shí)，后面的從句不能有 but，但是 though 和 yet 可連用
Although it's raining, they are still working in the field.
雖然在下雨，但他們?nèi)栽诘乩锔苫睢?/p>
He is very old, but he still works very hard.
雖然他很老，但仍然努力地工作。
Though the sore be healed, yet a scar may remain.
傷口雖愈合，但傷疤留下了。 (諺語)
典型例題
1) ___she is young, she knows quite a lot.
A. When
B. However
C. Although
D. Unless
答案：C。意為雖然她很年輕，卻知道許多。
2) as, though 引導(dǎo)的倒裝句
as / though 引導(dǎo)的讓步從句必須表語或狀語提前(形容詞、副詞、分詞、實(shí)義動詞提前)。
Child as /though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do. = Though he was a small child, he knew what was the right thing to do.
注意： a. 句首名詞不能帶任何冠詞。
b. 句首是實(shí)義動詞，其他助動詞放在主語后。如果實(shí)義動詞有賓語和狀語，隨實(shí)義動詞一起放
在主語之前。
Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.
= Though he tries hard, he never seems…
雖然他盡了努力，但他的工作總做的不盡人意。
3) ever if, even though. 即使
We'll make a trip even though the weather is bad.
4) whether…or- 不管……都
Whether you believe it or not, it is true.
5) "no matter +疑問詞" 或"疑問詞+后綴 ever"
No matter what happened, he would not mind.
Whatever happened, he would not mind.
替換：no matter what = whatever
no matter who = whoever
no matter when = whenever
no matter where = wherever
no matter which = whichever
no matter how = however
注意：no matter 不能引導(dǎo)主語從句和賓語從句。
(錯(cuò))No matter what you say is of no use now.
(對)Whatever you say is of no use now. 你現(xiàn)在說什么也沒用了。(Whatever you say 是主語從句)
(錯(cuò))Prisoners have to eat no matter what they're given,
(對)Prisoners have to eat whatever they're given. 囚犯們只能給什么吃什么。
19.8 比較 while,
when, as
1)as, when 引導(dǎo)短暫性動作的動詞。
Just as / Just when / When I stopped my car, a
man came up to me.2)當(dāng)從句的動作發(fā)生于主句動作之前，只能用 when
引導(dǎo)這個(gè)從句，不可用 as 或 while。
When you have finished your work, you may have a rest.
3)從句表示"隨時(shí)間推移"連詞能用 as，不用 when 或 while。
As the day went on, the weather got worse.
日子一天天過去，天氣越變越壞。
19.9 比較 until 和 till
此兩個(gè)連詞意義相同。肯定形式表示的意思是"做某事直至某時(shí)"，動詞必須是延續(xù)性的。否定形式表達(dá)的 意思是"直至某時(shí)才做某事"。動詞為延續(xù)性或非延續(xù)性都可 以。 正確使用這兩個(gè)連詞的關(guān)鍵之一就在于 判斷句中的動詞該用肯定式還是否定式。
肯定句：
I slept until midnight. 我一直睡到半夜時(shí)醒了。
Wait till I call you.
等著我叫你。
(在肯定句中可用 before 代替 Let's get in the wheat before the sun sets.)
否定句：
She didn't arrive until 6 o'clock.
她直到 6 點(diǎn)才到。
Don't get off the bus until it has stopped.
公共汽車停穩(wěn)后再下車。
I didn't manage to do it until you had explained how.
直到你教我后，我才會做。
1)Until 可用于句首，而 till 通常不用于句首。
Until you told me, I had heard nothing of what happened.
直到你告訴我以前，出了什么事我一點(diǎn)也不知道。
2)Until when 疑問句中，until 要放在句首。
---Until when are you staying? 你呆到什么時(shí)候?
--- Until next
Monday. 呆到下周一。
注意：否定句可用另外兩種句式表示。
(1)Not until …在句首，主句用倒裝。 Not until the early years of the 19th century did man know what heat is.
直到 19 世紀(jì)初，人類才知道熱能是什么。
Not until I began to work did I realize how much time I had wasted.
直到我開始工作，我才認(rèn)識到了我已蹉跎了幾多歲月。
(2) It is not until… that…
19.10 表示"一…就…"的結(jié)構(gòu)
hardly/scarcely…when/before, no sooner…than 和 as soon as 都可以表示"一…就…"的意思，例：
I had hardly / scarcely got home when it began to rain.
I had no sooner got home than it began to rain.
As soon as I got home, it began to rain.
注意：如果 hardly, scarcely 或 no
sooner 置于句首，句子必須用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)：Hardly / Scarcely had I got home when it began to rain.
No sooner had I got home than it began to rain.
20.連詞
連詞是一種虛詞， 它不能獨(dú)立擔(dān)任句子成分而只起連接詞與詞，短語與短語以及句與句的作用。連詞主要 可分為兩類：并列連詞和從屬連詞。并列連詞用來連接平行的詞、詞組和分句。如：and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, (and)then 等等。
20.1 并列連詞與并列結(jié)構(gòu)
并列連詞引導(dǎo)兩個(gè)并列的句子。
1) and 與 or 判斷改錯(cuò)：
(錯(cuò)) They sat down and talk about something.
(錯(cuò)) They started to dance and sang.
(錯(cuò)) I saw two men sitting behind and whisper there.
(對) They sat down and talked about something.
(對) They started to dance and sing.
(對)I saw two men sitting behind and whispering there.
解析：
第一句： and 連接兩個(gè)并列的謂語，所以 talk 應(yīng)改為 talked。
第二句：and 連接兩個(gè)并列的動詞不定式，第二個(gè)不定式往往省略 to，因此 sang 應(yīng)改為 sing。
第三句：and 連接感觀動詞 saw 后面的用作的賓補(bǔ)的兩個(gè)并列分詞結(jié)構(gòu)，因此 whisper 應(yīng)改為 whispering。
注意：and 還可以和祈使句或名詞詞組連用表示條件。(or 也有此用法)
Make up your mind, and you'll get the chance. =
If you make up your mind, you'll get the chance.
One more effort, and you'll succeed.
= If you make one more effort, you'll succeed.
2) both …and 兩者都
She plays (both) the piano and the guitar.
3) not only…but (also),
as well as 不但…而且)
She plays not only the piano, but (also) the guitar.
注意： not only… but also
關(guān)聯(lián)兩個(gè)分句時(shí)，一個(gè)分句因有否定詞 not 而必須倒裝。
Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.
4) neither…nor
意思為"既不……也不……"謂語動詞采用就近原則，與 nor 后的詞保持一致。
Neither you nor he is to blame.
20.2 比較 and 和 or
1) 并列結(jié)構(gòu)中，or 通常用于否定句，and 用于肯定句。2) 但有時(shí) and 也可用于否定句。請注意其不同特點(diǎn)：
There is no air or water in the moon.
There is no air and no water on the moon.
在否定中并列結(jié)構(gòu)用 or 連接，但含有兩個(gè)否定詞的句子實(shí)際被看作是肯定結(jié)構(gòu)，因此要用 and。
典型例題
---I don't like chicken ___ fish.
---I don't like chicken, ___ I like fish very much.
A. and; and
B. and; but
C. or; but
D. or;and
答案 C。否定句中表并列用 or, but 表轉(zhuǎn)折。
判斷改錯(cuò)：
(錯(cuò)) We will die without air and water.
(錯(cuò)) We can't live without air or water.
(對) We will die without air or water.
(對) We can't live without air and water.
20.3 表示選擇的并列結(jié)構(gòu)
1) or
意思為"否則"。
I must work hard, or I'll fail in the exam.
2) either…or
意思為"或者……或者……"。注意謂語動詞采用就近原則。
Either you or I am right.
20.4 表示轉(zhuǎn)折或?qū)Ρ?/p>
1) but 表示轉(zhuǎn)折，while 表示對比。
Some people love cats, while others hate them.
典型例題
--- Would you like to come to dinner tonight?
--- I'd like to, ___ I'm too busy.
A. and
B. so
C. as
D. but
答案 D。but 與前面形成轉(zhuǎn)折，符合語意。而表并列的 and， 結(jié)果的 so，原因的 as 都不符合句意。
2) not…but…
意思為"不是……而是……" not 和 but 后面的用詞要遵循一致原則。
They were not the bones of an animal, but (the bones) of a human being.
20.5 表原因關(guān)系
1) for
判斷改錯(cuò)：
(錯(cuò)) For he is ill, he is absent today.
(對) He is absent today, for he is ill.
for 是并列連詞，不能置于含兩個(gè)并列分句的句子的句首，只能將其放在兩個(gè)分句中間。
2) so, therefore
He hurt his leg, so he couldn't play in the game.注意：
a. 兩個(gè)并列連詞不能連用，但 therefore, then, yet.可以和并列連詞連用。
You can watch TV, and or you can go to bed.
He hurt his leg, and so / and therefore he couldn't play in the game.
b. although… yet…，但 although 不與 but 連用。
(錯(cuò)) Although he was weak, but he tried his best to do the work..
(對) Although he was weak, yet he tried his best to do the work.
20.6 比較 so 和 such
其規(guī)律由 so 與 such 的不同詞性決定。such 是形容詞，修飾名詞或名詞詞組，so 是副詞，只能修飾形容 詞或副詞。so 還可與表示數(shù)量的形容詞 many，few，much， little 連用，形成固定搭配。
so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 雖相當(dāng)于 many，但 a lot of 為名詞性的，只能用 such 搭配。
so…that 與 such…that 之間的轉(zhuǎn)換既為 so 與 such 之間的轉(zhuǎn)換。
21.情態(tài)動詞
21.1 情態(tài)動詞的語法特征
1) 情態(tài)動詞不能表示正在發(fā)生或已經(jīng)發(fā)生的事情，只表示期待或估計(jì)某事的發(fā)生。
2) 情態(tài)動詞 除 ought 和 have 外，后面只能接不帶 to 的不定式。
3) 情態(tài)動詞沒有人稱，數(shù)的變化，即情態(tài)動詞第三人稱單數(shù)不加-s。
4) 情態(tài)動詞沒有非謂語形式，即沒有不定式，分詞，等形式。
21.2 比較 can 和 be able to
1)can could 表示能力;可能 (過去時(shí)用 could),
只用于現(xiàn)在式和過去式(could)。be able to 可以用于各種時(shí)態(tài)。
They will be able to tell you the news soon. 他很快就能告訴你消息了。
2)只用 be able to
a. 位于助動詞后。
b. 情態(tài)動詞后。
c. 表示過去某時(shí)刻動作時(shí)。
d. 用于句首表示條件。
e. 表示成功地做了某事時(shí)，只能用 was/were able to， 不能用 could。He was able to flee Europe before the war broke out.
= He managed to flee Europe before the war broke out.
注意：could 不表示時(shí)態(tài)
1)提出委婉的請求，(注意在回答中不可用 could)。
--- Could I have the television on?
--- Yes, you can. / No, you can't.
2)在否定，疑問句中表示推測或懷疑。
He couldn't be a bad man. 他不大可能是壞人。
21.3 比較 may 和 might
1) 表示允許或請求;表示沒有把握的推測;may 放在句首，表示祝愿。
May God bless you!
He might be at home.
注意： might 表示推測時(shí)，不表示時(shí)態(tài)。只是可能性比 may 小。
2) 成語： may/might as
well，后面接不帶 to 的不定式，意為"不妨"。
If that is the case, we may as well try.
21.4 比較 have to 和 must
1) 兩詞都是'必須'的意思，have to 表示客觀的需要， must 表示說話人主觀上的看法，既主觀上的必 要。
My brother was very ill, so I had to call the doctor in the middle of the night. 我弟弟病 得很厲害，我只得半夜里把醫(yī)生請來。(客觀上需要做這件事)
He said that they must work hard. 他說他們必須努力工作。(主觀上要做這件事)
2) have to 有人稱、數(shù)、時(shí)態(tài)的變化，而 must 只有一種形式。但 must 可用于間接引語中表示過去的
必要或義務(wù)。
He had to look after his sister yesterday.
3) 在否定結(jié)構(gòu)中： don't have to 表示"不必"
mustn't 表示"禁止"，
You don't have to tell him about it. 你不一定要把此事告訴他。
You mustn't tell him about it. 你一定不要把這件事告訴他。
21.5must 表示推測
1) must 用在肯定句中表示較有把握的推測，意為"一定"。
2) must 表對現(xiàn)在的狀態(tài)或現(xiàn)在正發(fā)生的事情的推測時(shí)， must 后面通常接系動詞 be 的原形或行為
動詞的進(jìn)行式。You have worked hard all day.You must be tired.
你辛苦干一整天，一定累了。(對現(xiàn)在情況的推測判斷)
He must be working in his office. 他一定在辦公室工作呢。
比較：
He must be staying there. 他現(xiàn)在肯定呆在那里。
He must stay there. 他必須呆在那。
3) must 表示對已發(fā)生的事情的推測時(shí)，must 要接完成式。
I didn't hear the phone. I must have been asleep. 我剛才沒有聽到電話，我想必是睡著了。
4) must 表示對過去某時(shí)正發(fā)生的事情的推測，must 后面要接不定式的完成進(jìn)行式。
---Why didn't you answer my phone call?
---Well, I must have been sleeping, so I didn't hear it.
5) 否定推測用 can't。
If Tom didn't leave here until five o'clock, he can't be home yet. 如果湯姆五點(diǎn)才離開這兒，他此時(shí)一定還未到家。
21.6 表示推測的用法
can, could, may, might, must 皆可表示推測，其用法如下：
1)情態(tài)動詞+動詞原形。
表示對現(xiàn)在或?qū)淼那闆r的推測，此時(shí)動詞通常為系動詞。
I don't know where she is, she may be in Wuhan.
2)情態(tài)動詞+動詞現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)。
表示對現(xiàn)在或?qū)碚谶M(jìn)行的情況進(jìn)行推測。
At this moment, our teacher must be correcting our exam papers.
這時(shí)，我們老師想必在批改試卷。
3)情態(tài)動詞+動詞完成時(shí)。
表示對過去情況的推測。
We would have finished this work by the end of next December.
明年十二月底前我們很可能已完成這項(xiàng)工作了。
The road is wet. It must have rained last night.
地是濕的，昨天晚上一定下雨了。
4)情態(tài)動詞+動詞的現(xiàn)在完成進(jìn)行時(shí)。
表示對過去正在發(fā)生事情的推測。
Your mother must have been looking for you. 你媽媽一定一直在找你。
5)推測的否定形式，疑問形式用 can't, couldn't 表示。
Mike can't have found his car, for he came to work by bus this morning.邁克一定還沒有找回他的車，因?yàn)樵缟纤亲财噥砩习嗟摹?/p>
注意：could, might 表示推測時(shí)不表示時(shí)態(tài)，其推測的程度不如 can, may。
21.7 情態(tài)動詞+ have +過去分詞
1) may(might) have + done sth, can (could) have + done sth
表示過去，推測過去時(shí)間里可能 發(fā)生的事情。
Philip may (might) have been hurt seriously in the car accident.
Philip can (could) have been hurt seriously in the car accident.
2) must have +done sth，對過去時(shí)間里可能發(fā)生的事情的推測，語氣較強(qiáng)，具有"肯定"，"諒必"的 意思。
---Linda has gone to work, but her bicycle is still here.
---She must have gone by bus.
3) ought to have done sth, should have done sth
本應(yīng)該做某事，而事實(shí)上并沒有做。否定句表示"不該做某事而做了"。
You ought to (should) have been more careful in this experiment.
He ought not to have thrown the old clothes away.(事實(shí)上已扔了。)
ought to 在語氣上比 should 要強(qiáng)。
4) needn't have done sth 本沒必要做某事
I dressed very warmly for the trip, but I needn't have done so. The weather was hot.
5) would like to have done sth 本打算做某事
I would like to have read the article, but I was very busy then.
21.8should 和 ought to should 和 ought to 都為"應(yīng)該"的意思，可用于各種人稱。
---Ought he to go?
---Yes. I think he ought to.
表示要求，命令時(shí)，語氣由 should(應(yīng)該)、had better 最好)、must(必須)漸強(qiáng)。
21.9had better 表示"最好"
had better 相當(dāng)于一個(gè)助動詞，它只有一種形式，它后面要跟動詞原形。
had better do sth
had better not do sth
It is pretty cold.
You'd better put on my coat.
She'd better not play with the dog. had better have
done sth 表示與事實(shí)相反的結(jié)果，意為"本來最好"。
You had better have come earlier.
21.10would
rather 表示"寧愿"
would rather do
would rather not do
would rather… than…
寧愿……而不愿。還有 would
sooner, had rather, had sooner 都表示"寧愿"、"寧可"的意思。
If I have a choice, I had sooner not continue my studies at this school.
I would rather stay here than go home.
= I would stay here rather than go home.
典型例題
----Shall we go skating or stay at home?
----Which ___ do?
A. do you rather
B. would you rather
C. will you rather
D. should you rather
答案 B。本題考查情態(tài)動詞 rather 的用法，would rather +do sth 意為"寧愿"，本題為疑問句，would
提前，所以選 B。
21.11will 和 would
注意：
1)would like; Would like to do = want to 想要，為固定搭配。
Would you like to go with me?
2)Will you…?
Would you like…? 表示肯定含義的請求勸說時(shí)，疑問句中一般用 some, 而不是 any。
Would you like some cake?
3)否定結(jié)構(gòu)中用 will，一般不用 would, won't you 是一種委婉語氣。
Won't you sit down?
21.12 情態(tài)動詞的回答方式
典型例題
1)---Could I borrow your dictionary?
---Yes, of course, you____.
A. might
B. will
C. can
D. should
答案 C.could 表示委婉的語氣，并不為時(shí)態(tài)。答語中 of course，表示肯定的語氣，允許某人做某事時(shí)， 用 can 和 may 來表達(dá)，不能用 could 或 might。復(fù)習(xí)：will 與 you 連用，用來提出要求或下命令。should 與 you 連用，用來提出勸告。
2)---Shall I tell John about it?
---No, you ___. I've told him already.
A. needn't
B. wouldn't
C. mustn't
D. shouldn't
答案 A。needn't 不必，不用。 wouldn't 將不, 不會的。 mustn't 禁止、不能。 shouldn't 不 應(yīng)該。本題為不需要，不必的意思，應(yīng)用 needn't。
3)---Don't forget to come to my birthday party tomorrow.
---______.
A. I don't
B. I won't
C. I can't D. I haven't
答案 B. will 既可當(dāng)作情態(tài)動詞，表請求、建議、也可作為實(shí)義動詞表"意愿、意志、決心"，本題表
示決心，選 B。21.13 帶 to 的情態(tài)動詞 帶 to 的情態(tài)動詞有四個(gè)：ought to, have to, used to, be to, 如加上 have got to ,(=must), be able to，為六個(gè)。它們的疑問，否定形式應(yīng)予以注意：
Do they have to pay their bill before the end of the month?
She didn't use to play tennis before she was fourteen.
You ought not to have told her all about it.
Ought he to see a heart specialist at once.?
ought to 本身作為情態(tài)動詞使用。其他的詞作為實(shí)義動詞使用，變疑問，否定時(shí)，須有 do 等助動詞 協(xié)助。
典型例題
Tom ought not to ___ me your secret, but he meant no harm.
A.have told B.tell C.be telling D. having told
答案 A。由于后句為過去時(shí)，告訴秘密的動作又發(fā)生在其前因，此地應(yīng)用過去完成時(shí)，但它在情態(tài)動詞 ought to 后，所以用 have。
21.14 比較 need 和 dare
這兩詞既可做實(shí)義動詞用，又可做情態(tài)動詞用。作為情態(tài)動詞，兩者都只能用于疑問句，否定句和條件句。 need 作實(shí)義動詞時(shí)后面的不定式必須帶 to，而 dare 作實(shí)義動詞用時(shí), 后面的 to 時(shí)常可以被省略。
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